Brandi Y. Rollins

Delay discounting moderates the effect of food reinforcement on energy intake among non-obese women.

Recent theoretical approaches to food intake hypothesize that eating represents a balance between reward-driven motivation to eat versus inhibitory executive function processes, however this hypothesis remains to be tested. The objective of the current study was to test the hypothesis that the motivation to eat, operationalized by the relative reinforcing value (RRV) of food, and inhibitory processes, assessed by delay discounting (DD), interact to influence energy intake in an ad libitum eating task. Female subjects (n = 24) completed a DD of money procedure, RRV task, and an ad libitum eating task in counterbalanced sessions. RRV of food predicted total energy intake, however the effect of the RRV of food on energy intake was moderated by DD. Women higher in DD and RRV of food consumed greater total energy, whereas women higher in RRV of food but lower in DD consumed less total energy. Our findings support the hypothesis that reinforcing value and executive function mediated processes interactively influence food consumption.

The Beneficial Effect of Family Meals on Obesity Differs by Race, Sex, and Household Education: The National Survey of Children's Health, 2003-2004

Studies have indicated that family meals may be a protective factor for childhood obesity; however, limited evidence is available in children with different racial, socioeconomic, and individual characteristics. The purpose of this study was to examine family meal frequency as a protective factor for obesity in a US-based sample of non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, and Hispanic children age 6 to 11 years, and to identify individual, familial, and socioeconomic factors that moderate this association. Data were from the 2003 National Survey of Childrens Health (n=16,770). Multinomial logistic regression analyses were used to test the association between family meal frequency and weight status, and the moderating effects of household structure, education, poverty level, and sex, by racial group. Non-Hispanic white children who consumed family meals every day were less likely to be obese than those eating family meals zero or a few days per week. A moderating effect for sex was observed in non-Hispanic black children such that family meal frequency was marginally protective in boys but not in girls. Higher family meal frequency was a marginal risk factor for obesity in Hispanic boys from low-education households, but not in girls from similar households. In conclusion, family meals seem to be protective of obesity in non-Hispanic white children and non-Hispanic black boys, whereas they may put Hispanic boys living in low-education households at risk. Greater emphasis is needed in future research on assessing why this association differs among different race/ethnic groups, and evaluating the influence of the quality and quantity of family meals on child obesity.

Effects of restriction on children’s intake differ by child temperament, food reinforcement, and parent’s chronic use of restriction ☆

Parents’ use of restrictive feeding practices is counterproductive, increasing children’s intake of restricted foods and risk for excessive weight gain. The aims of this research were to replicate Fisher and Birch’s (1999b) original findings that short-term restriction increases preschool children’s (3–5 y) selection, intake, and behavioral response to restricted foods, and to identify characteristics of children who were more susceptible to the negative effects of restriction. The experiment used a within-subjects design; 37 children completed the food reinforcement task and heights/weights were measured. Parents reported on their use of restrictive feeding practices and their child’s inhibitory control and approach. Overall, the findings replicated those of and revealed that the effects of restriction differed by children’s regulatory and appetitive tendencies. Greater increases in intake in response to restriction were observed among children lower in inhibitory control, higher in approach, who found the restricted food highly reinforcing, and who had previous experience with parental use of restriction. Results confirm that the use of restriction does not reduce children’s consumption of these foods, particularly among children with lower regulatory or higher appetitive tendencies.

Generation, Language, Body Mass Index, and Activity Patterns in Hispanic Children

BACKGROUND The acculturation hypothesis proposes an overall disadvantage in health outcomes for Hispanic immigrants with more time spent living in the U.S., but little is known about how generational status and language may influence Hispanic childrens relative weight and activity patterns. PURPOSE To investigate associations among generation and language with relative weight (BMI z-scores), physical activity, screen time, and participation in extracurricular activities (i.e., sports, clubs) in a U.S.-based, nationally representative sample of Hispanic children. METHODS Participants included 2012 Hispanic children aged 6-11 years from the cross-sectional 2003 National Survey of Childrens Health. Children were grouped according to generational status (first, second, or third), and the primary language spoken in the home (English versus non-English). Primary analyses included adjusted logistic and multinomial logistic regression to examine the relationships among variables; all analyses were conducted between 2008 and 2009. RESULTS Compared to third-generation, English speakers, first- and second-generation, non-English speakers were more than two times more likely to be obese. Moreover, first-generation, non-English speakers were half as likely to engage in regular physical activity and sports. Both first- and second-generation, non-English speakers were less likely to participate in clubs compared to second- and third-generation, English speakers. Overall, non-English-speaking groups reported less screen time compared to third-generation, English speakers. CONCLUSIONS The hypothesis that Hispanics lose their health protection with more time spent in the U.S. was not supported in this sample of Hispanic children.

Alternatives to restrictive feeding practices to promote self‐regulation in childhood: a developmental perspective

Intake of energy‐dense snack foods is high among US children. Although the use of restrictive feeding practices has been shown to be counterproductive, there is very limited evidence for effective alternatives to restriction that help children moderate their intake of these foods and that facilitate the development of self‐regulation in childhood. The developmental literature on parenting and child outcomes may provide insights into alternatives to restrictive feeding practices. This review paper uses a model of parental control from the child development and parenting literatures to (i) operationally define restrictive feeding practices; (ii) summarize current evidence for antecedents and effects of parental restriction use on childrens eating behaviours and weight status, and (iii) highlight alternative feeding practices that may facilitate the development of childrens self‐regulation and moderate childrens intake of palatable snack foods. We also discuss recent empirical evidence highlighting the role of child temperament and food motivation related behaviours as factors that prompt parents to use restrictive feeding practices and, yet, may increase childrens dysregulated intake of forbidden foods.

Measurement of food reinforcement in preschool children. Associations with food intake, BMI, and reward sensitivity.

Progressive ratio (PR) schedules of reinforcement have been used to measure the relative reinforcing value (RRV) of food in humans as young as 8 years old; however, developmentally appropriate measures are needed to measure RRV of food earlier in life. Study objectives were to demonstrate the validity of the RRV of food task adapted for use among for preschool children (3-5 y), and examine individual differences in performance. Thirty-three children completed the RRV of food task in which they worked to access graham crackers. They also completed a snack task where they had free access these foods, liking and hunger assessments, and their heights and weights were measured. Parents reported on their childs reward sensitivity. Overall, children were willing work for palatable snack foods. Boys and older children made more responses in the task, while children with higher BMI z-scores and reward sensitivity responded at a faster rate. Children who worked harder in terms of total responses and response rates consumed more calories in the snack session. This study demonstrates that with slight modifications, the RRV of food task is a valid and developmentally appropriate measure for assessing individual differences in food reinforcement among very young children.

Reply to EM Satter

gave autonomy with respect to how much their daughters ate, but group 3 and 4 mothers did not. The high BMIs of group 3 girls, as well as other research indicating that girls deprived of high-fat, high-sugar snacks show increasing EAH and BMI over time (5), indicate that successfully managing these foods requires a particular strategy. The sDOR solution (6) is to regularly include high-fat, high sugar foods, in unlimited amounts, in regular, structured, sit-down snacks. Clinical experience shows that children initially compensate for earlier deprivation by eating a great deal of these foods. However, their consumption moderates, and they adjust to eating more or less of them depending on their appetite and energy needs. Just as they do with other foods. To fully understand why the feeding strategies addressed in this research trial are inconsistent with sDOR, consider the trust-based theoretical underpinnings of sDOR. The conviction is that in the context of positive feeding, even children who particularly enjoy food and have unusually good appetite eat as much as they need of even very tasty food, and thereby show innate and positive self-control with respect to how much they eat. ‘‘Poor’’ food selection, such as allowing children to have high-fat, high sugar foods, only overwhelms their ability to regulate food intake when sDOR is incompletely or incorrectly applied.