Brandon P. Anthony

The dual nature of parks: attitudes of neighbouring communities towards Kruger National Park, South Africa

The attitudes of neighbouring communities towards protected areas are increasingly being considered in the establishment and management of national parks. In South Africa, more inclusive policies have been introduced which seek to involve neighbouring communities in policy formulation and management of Kruger National Park (KNP). This paper examines the attitudes of 38 communities towards KNP along its western border. A random survey of 240 households was conducted to assess attitudes towards the Park, and what factors might influence them. Attitudes were measured by responses to 12 related questions, which were transformed to construct an attitude index. Attitudes are more varied than previously reported. Notwithstanding KNP outreach programmes, many respondents had had no interaction with KNP, 72.9% had never been in the Park, and only 32.1% claimed they knew of KNPs activities. Having a household member employed by KNP, age and de jure Traditional Authority affiliation influenced more positive attitudes toward KNP. Negative attitudes were primarily linked with problems associated with damage-causing animals, including inadequate maintenance of the KNP border fence, poor animal control outside KNP and lack of compensation for affected farmers. These findings on relationships between KNP and its neighbours are relevant for many protected areas in similar contexts elsewhere.

Sitting on the fence? policies and practices in managing human-wildlife conflict in Limpopo province, South Africa

Human-wildlife conflicts are the product of socio-economic and political landscapes and are contentious because the resources concerned have economic value and species are often high profile and legally protected. Within a governance framework, we detail institutional roles and the effectiveness of policies and practices of controlling damage-causing animals (DCAs) at Kruger National Park (KNP) and Limpopo Province along KNPs western border. Most DCAs originate from the park, significantly affecting its long-term legitimacy among local communities. Between 2002 and 2004, over 12% of households within 15 km of the park experienced DCA damage, with incidents significantly correlated with being located closer to KNP and having higher numbers of mammalian livestock. These incidents are affecting opinions concerning KNP, as those who experienced damage were less likely to believe that the park would ever help their household economically. According to 482 DCA incident records from 1998 to 2004, the most problematic species are buffalo, lion, elephant, hippo and crocodile. Limpopo Province utilised professional hunters in DCA control, however, widespread abuses including the direct luring of lion led to a national moratorium on specific hunting practices. DCA procedures are highly flawed due to ambiguity concerning species and movement of DCAs, poor reporting, inadequate response times, overlapping responsibilities, and corruption. These are exacerbated by weak and, in some cases, competing institutions. Further, the controversial issue of undelivered compensation is determining negative attitudes by communities towards institutions who have historically promised it. Drawing on good governance principles, we offer recommendations on alleviating DCA conflicts in such contexts.

A landscape-level study on the breeding site characteristics of ten amphibian species in Central Europe

Temporary ponds are characterized as being in natural or close to natural states in Central and Eastern Europe, especially those located in forested landscapes. As these ponds function as breeding sites for many amphibians, they represent an ideal target to explore the terrestrial and aquatic habitat preferences of different species. We surveyed 133 small ponds in a forested, hilly region of North-Central Hungary. The occurrence of ten amphibian species and amphibian species richness were compared to six pond-related habitat variables and the extent of four terrestrial habitat types in the area surrounding the ponds. Our results suggest that most species’ occurrence and species richness are chiefly related to pond characteristics, although terrestrial habitat variables could also be a determining factor in particular species. Whereas the majority of amphibian species prefer larger, hence more permanent water bodies with abundant aquatic vegetation, the common frog (Rana temporaria) chooses small, shallow wallow pits for breeding and has special requirements concerning terrestrial habitat composition. This could explain its restricted distribution in the area. Our results suggest that maintaining a diverse set of ponds and forestry management which facilitates habitats’ structural heterogeneity are both important factors for the preservation of the rich amphibian fauna in Central Europe.

Use of Modified Threat Reduction Assessments to Estimate Success of Conservation Measures within and Adjacent to Kruger National Park, South Africa

The importance of biodiversity as natural capital for economic development and sustaining human welfare is well documented. Nevertheless, resource degradation rates and persistent deterioration of human welfare in developing countries is increasingly worrisome. Developing effective monitoring and evaluation schemes and measuring biodiversity loss continue to pose unique challenges, particularly when there is a paucity of historical data. Threat reduction assessment (TRA) has been proposed as a method to measure conservation success and as a proxy measurement of conservation impact, monitoring threats to resources rather than changes to biological parameters themselves. This tool is considered a quick, practical alternative to more cost- and time-intensive approaches, but has inherent weaknesses. I conducted TRAs to evaluate the effectiveness of Kruger National Park (KNP) and Limpopo Province, South Africa, in mitigating threats to biodiversity from 1994 to 2004 in 4 geographical areas. I calculated TRA index values in these TRAs by using the original scoring developed by Margoluis and Salafsky (2001)and a modified scoring system that assigned negative mitigation values to incorporate new or worsening threats. Threats were standardized to allow comparisons across the sites. Modified TRA index values were significantly lower than values derived from the original scoring exercise. Five of the 11 standardized threats were present in all 4 assessment areas, 2 were restricted to KNP, 2 to Limpopo Province, and 2 only to Malamulele municipality. These results indicate, first, the need to integrate negative mitigation values into TRA scoring. By including negative values, investigators will be afforded a more accurate picture of biodiversity threats and of temporal and spatial trends across sites. Where the original TRA scoring was used to measure conservation success, reevaluation of these cases with the modified scoring is recommended. Second, practitioners must carefully consider the need and consequences of generalizing threats into generic categories for comparative assessments. Finally, continued refinement of the methodology and its extension to facilitate the transfer of successful conservation strategies is needed.

Protected Areas in Selected Arab Countries of the Levant Region (Syria, Lebanon & Jordan): An Evaluation of Management and Recommendations for Improvement

Global trends in biodiversity conservation have frequently been reported as being unsatisfactory, especially after the 2010 targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) failed to be met (2010 Biodiversity Indicators Partnership 2010). Despite some notable conservation successes at various scales (Sodhi et al., 2011), anthropogenic impacts go largely unabated and increasingly endanger the planet’s biota and life support systems (Dirzo & Raven, 2003). One of the main approaches to halting biodiversity loss has been the establishment of protected areas (PAs), an undertaking which has seen a prolific growth in recent decades in terms of both number and spatial extent (Chape et al., 2005; Coad et al., 2008a). While the number of PAs under national or international programs and legislation has been rising on a global level (Butchart et al., 2010; Coad et al., 2008b), biodiversity loss continues even within some PAs (Bonham et al., 2008; Craigie et al., 2010; Gaston et al., 2008; Hockings & Phillips, 1999; Oates, 1999). Why is this?

Using Multiple Linear Regression Models to Identify Factors Underlying Avian Species Imperilment in Sub-Saharan Africa and Europe

Determining what factors influence the threats faced by the world’s flora and fauna is of key importance to conservation biologists (Cardillo et al., 2008; Davies et al., 2006; Smith et al., 2003; see Spangenberg, 2002). A plethora of research has been directed at this effort and has looked extensively at biological and anthropogenic factors, including social and socioeconomic conditions (e.g. Holland et al., 2009; Huby et al., 2006; Kerr & Currie, 1995; Lenzen et al., 2009; McKee et al., 2003). This chapter intends to supplement the existing literature by utilizing updated data to address this issue from a primarily socio-economic perspective for birds in a selection of sub-Saharan African and European countries. We generate several models using multiple linear regression to test the explanatory power of a host of variables, including human population density (HPD) per km2, Corruption Perception Index (CPI) score (as a proxy for governance), GDP per capita, and the average degrees from the equator. In addition, the results are considered in light of projected changes to HPD levels for the year 2050 (United Nations [UN], 2008). Bird species are currently being impacted by several threats, resulting in the need for conservationists to address a wide range of issues (Brooke et al., 2008). These include landuse change, habitat destruction, invasive species, unsustainable exploitation, climate change, and insufficient governance (Brooke et al., 2008; Butchart, 2008; Lemoine et al., 2007; Lenzen et al., 2009; Reif et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2003; Thomas et al., 2004). These threats have the potential to impact the quality or quantity of available resources, directly impact the population, or change the conditions that a species may face. In addition, while these threats exist in isolation, many are correlated or exist in a cascading fashion (for example climate change can lead to habitat destruction). While these threats, and others, can be enumerated, the underlying drivers of these pressures are often rooted in socio-economic conditions, including corruption, HPD, and poverty level (Kerr & Currie, 1995; Pandit & Laband, 2009; Pellegrini & Gerlagh, 2004). Understanding how these socioeconomic factors influence conservation agendas has been the focus of several authors, occasionally with contradictory results. While correlation can

Implementation of the Periodic Review requirement in the ArabMAB network: Lessons for improving Biosphere Reserve evaluation

Biosphere Reserves have been managed worldwide to demonstrate three integrated functions within their triple zonation scheme: conservation of natural and cultural values, logistic support and sustainable socio-economic development. Evaluation of these functions is formalised within the Periodic Review process whereby reports are submitted every ten years with the primary intent to evaluate the effectiveness of Biosphere Reserve concept implementation locally. However, the effectiveness of the Periodic Review as an evaluation system is poorly understood, and studies that document its regional implementation are lacking. Here we present the first regional review of the Periodic Review evaluation within the ArabMAB network. Using a mixed methods approach, we assess compliance with the Periodic Review report submission requirement, and quality of Periodic Review reports based on a novel approach. Our results show that the Periodic Review is characterised by significant delays (mean = 7.6 years), with five of 27 reports missing. Report quality for seven available reports varies, with most rating as low to average quality, and many lacking essential elements to assess Biosphere Reserve concept implementation as defined by Article 4 of the Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. We discuss factors that hinder successful compliance with the Periodic Review requirement regionally, and offer recommendations for improving Biosphere Reserve evaluation.