Breda V. O'Keeffe

A generalized least squares regression approach for computing effect sizes in single-case research: Application examples

A new method for deriving effect sizes from single-case designs is proposed. The strategy is applicable to small-sample time-series data with autoregressive errors. The method uses Generalized Least Squares (GLS) to model the autocorrelation of the data and estimate regression parameters to produce an effect size that represents the magnitude of treatment effect from baseline to treatment phases in standard deviation units. In this paper, the method is applied to two published examples using common single case designs (i.e., withdrawal and multiple-baseline). The results from these studies are described, and the method is compared to ten desirable criteria for single-case effect sizes. Based on the results of this application, we conclude with observations about the use of GLS as a support to visual analysis, provide recommendations for future research, and describe implications for practice.

A Contextual Consideration of Culture and School-Wide Positive Behavior Support.

Students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds have historically experienced poor outcomes related to academic achievement, special education, school discipline and climate, and juvenile justice. Differences between home and school cultures likely contribute to these outcomes. Evidence-based practices in schools are promoted to improve the academic and social outcomes for all students, but attention must be paid to cultural factors when implementing practices. School-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS) is a systems approach to promoting evidence-based practices to affect important social and academic outcomes for all students. The purpose of this article is to consider culture within the implementation context of SWPBS. To achieve this purpose, we adopt and describe a contextual perspective on culture that is based on behavioral theory and principles of behavior analysis, and incorporate findings from a review of the literature related to culture and student behavior.

A Quantitative Synthesis of Methodology in the Meta-Analysis of Single-Subject Research for Students with Disabilities: 1985-2009.

The purpose of this review was to examine the methods used to conduct meta-analyses of single-subject research involving students with and at-risk for disabilities. Specifically, the procedures used for preparing, aggregating, analyzing, and evaluating single-subject data across 68 primary syntheses were examined. In addition to these methodological and reporting issues, the present review also considered various characteristics of syntheses to determine their overall prevalence and focus. Results of the review indicated that the publication rate of single-subject meta-analyses has increased considerably in recent years, focusing equally on students with high- and low-incidence disabilities. This review revealed considerable variability in the methods and procedures used to synthesize single-subject research. Based on these findings, suggestions for future single-subject meta-analyses were made.

Consideration of Culture and Context in School-Wide Positive Behavior Support: A Review of Current Literature.

A review of the literature related to culture and student behavior reveals a number of interesting observations that are not surprising. First, culture is a difficult construct to define and has been defined variably over the years. Second, schools are becoming increasingly diverse, and evidence-based behavior management practices have been implemented with varied levels of integrity and varied outcomes. Third, students who spend more time outside the classroom because of disciplinary consequences are at increased risk for negative outcomes, such as diminished academic identity, deficient academic skills, and higher attrition. The school-wide positive behavior supports (SWPBS) framework has been implemented in numerous settings with student populations representing a variety of cultures. A literature review and concept article were developed concurrently and were found to inform each other. In this study, a review of existing literature on culturally and contextually relevant strategies for behavior management in schools was conducted. Based on this review, general recommendations are presented for practitioners, personnel preparers, policy makers, and researchers, especially, in the context of implementing SWPBS.

Systematic Review of the Check-in, Check-out Intervention for Students At Risk for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

The purpose of this systematic literature review was to summarize outcomes of the Check-in Check-out (CICO) intervention across elementary and secondary settings. Twenty-eight studies utilizing both single subject and group (experimental and quasi-experimental) designs were included in this review. Median effect sizes across the eight group studies were small (median d = .37; range, -.15 to .60) for studies reporting Cohen’s d or similar effect sizes and large (.23; range, .13 to .32) for studies reporting R2 type effect sizes favoring the implementation of CICO. For single subject design studies, the overall median PND across 20 studies was 68% (range, 0 to 100%), indicating CICO is questionably effective but approaching the effectiveness criterion ( ≥ 70% PND) suggested by Scruggs and Mastropieri (1998). Implications for practice are discussed along with suggestions for future research.

Comparing Results of Systematic Reviews: Parallel Reviews of Research on Repeated Reading

Education and related services are relying increasingly on empirically supported treatments (ESTs), which have been shown to improve student outcomes through rigorous research. Many organizations have developed review systems with guidelines for judging the quality of studies and identifying ESTs. However, little explicit attention has been paid to issues of validity of these review systems. In this study, we used the criteria developed by Horner and colleagues (2005), Gersten and colleagues (2005), and the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC, 2008; Kratochwill et al., 2010) to evaluate the research base on repeated reading. The corpus of literature reviewed was derived from previous narrative literature reviews and meta-analyses that concluded that repeated reading was an effective intervention for improving reading fluency. However, the review systems employed in this study resulted in the conclusion that repeated reading did not have enough high quality research support to be considered an EST. The current reviews relied on strict criteria for the quality of each individual study, whereas the previous reviews and meta-analyses included studies with a wider range of quality. These results demonstrate that systematic reviews that strictly appraise the quality of studies and reject those not meeting standards can be substantially more conservative than other scientific review methods. The finding that these different review methods (narrative, meta-analysis, and systematic) can produce diverging recommendations raises issues of validity for practice recommendations.

The Effects of a Fluency Training Package on Paraprofessionals’ Presentation of a Reading Intervention

Paraprofessionals are widely employed in response to intervention (RTI) settings to provide instruction to students at-risk for reading disabilities. However, little research has addressed effective and efficient ways to train these paraprofessionals to deliver instruction with high fidelity. In addition, given the limited time and finances available in most districts, training needs to be as efficient as possible. This study assessed the effects of a 5-hour fluency training package on the presentation rates, praise rates, and error correction accuracy of five paraprofessionals providing supplemental reading instruction within an RTI system using a multiple baseline design across participants. Students’ reading accuracy and percentage of intervals with on-task behavior were evaluated. Paraprofessionals generally increased their presentation rates, praise rates, and error correction accuracy. Students’ behaviors were affected less.