Breena R. Taira

Validation of the Wong‐Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale in Pediatric Emergency Department Patients

OBJECTIVES The Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale (WBS), used in children to rate pain severity, has been validated outside the emergency department (ED), mostly for chronic pain. The authors validated the WBS in children presenting to the ED with pain by identifying a corresponding mean value of the visual analog scale (VAS) for each face of the WBS and determined the relationship between the WBS and VAS. The hypothesis was that the pain severity ratings on the WBS would be highly correlated (Spearmans rho > 0.80) with those on a VAS. METHODS This was a prospective, observational study of children ages 8-17 years with pain presenting to a suburban, academic pediatric ED. Children rated their pain severity on a six-item ordinal faces scale (WBS) from none to worst and a 100-mm VAS from least to most. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare mean VAS scores across the six ordinal categories. Spearmans correlation (rho) was used to measure agreement between the continuous and ordinal scales. RESULTS A total of 120 patients were assessed: the median age was 13 years (interquartile range [IQR] = 10-15 years), 50% were female, 78% were white, and six patients (5%) used a language other than English at home. The most commonly specified locations of pain were extremity (37%), abdomen (19%), and back/neck (11%). The mean VAS increased uniformly across WBS categories in increments of about 17 mm. ANOVA demonstrated significant differences in mean VAS across face groups. Post hoc testing demonstrated that each mean VAS was significantly different from every other mean VAS. Agreement between the WBS and VAS was excellent (rho = 0.90; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.86 to 0.93). There was no association between age, sex, or pain location with either pain score. CONCLUSIONS The VAS was found to have an excellent correlation in older children with acute pain in the ED and had a uniformly increasing relationship with WBS. This finding has implications for research on pain management using the WBS as an assessment tool.

The Provision of Surgical Care by International Organizations in Developing Countries: A Preliminary Report

ObjectiveEmerging data demonstrate that a large fraction of the global burden of disease is amenable to surgical intervention. There is a paucity of data related to delivery of surgical care in low- and middle-income countries, and no aggregate data describe the efforts of international organizations to provide surgical care in these settings. This study was designed to describe the roles and practices of international organizations delivering surgical care in developing nations with regard to surgical types and volume, outcomes tracking, and degree of integration with local health systems.MethodsBetween October 2008 and December 2008, an Internet-based confidential questionnaire was distributed to 99 international organizations providing humanitarian surgical care to determine their size, scope, involvement in surgical data collection, and integration into local systems.ResultsForty-six international organizations responded (response rate 46%). Findings reveal that a majority of organizations that provide surgery track numbers of cases performed and immediate outcomes, such as mortality. In general, these groups have mechanisms in place to track volume and outcomes, provide for postintervention follow-up, are committed to providing education, and work in conjunction with local health organizations and providers. Whereas most organizations surveyed provided fewer than 500 surgical procedures annually, more than half had the capacity to provide emergency services. In addition, a great diversity of specialized surgical care was provided, including obstetrics, orthopedic, plastic, and ophthalmologic surgery.ConclusionsInternational organizations providing surgical services are diverse in size and breadth of surgical services provided yet, with consistency, provide rudimentary analysis, postoperative follow-up care, and both education and integration of health services at the local level. The role of international organizations in the delivery of surgery is an important index, worthy of further evaluation.

Survey of emergency and surgical capacity in the conflict-affected regions of Sri Lanka.

BackgroundThree decades of internal conflict in the North and East of Sri Lanka have taken a toll on the health care system in that area.MethodsWe proposed to quantify the current status of capacity to deliver emergency, anesthesia, and surgical interventions in the conflict affected areas of Sri Lanka. The World Health Organization (WHO) Tool for Situational Analysis to Assess Emergency and Essential Surgical Care (EESC) was used to evaluate 47 health facilities.ResultsAlthough most have trained health care providers capable of basic procedures, infrastructure and supplies were severely lacking.ConclusionThese data can be used as a basis for the recovery and rebuilding of EESC capacity in conflict-affected areas of Sri Lanka.

Burden of surgical disease: does the literature reflect the scope of the international crisis?

BackgroundLittle is factually known about the burden of surgical disease and less is known about global surgical provision of care for diseases that may be treated, cured, or palliated by a surgical intervention. Despite the lack of information, surgical interventions are provided by a variety of agencies every day in the developing world. This literature review represents the first published comprehensive review of the global surgical literature. The primary goal was to collect and summarize what has been published on the current global burden of surgical disease and thereby encourage and promote the allocation of further research and resources.MethodsA systematic review of English language publications on Pubmed or Medline was performed.Results and conclusionsThis report summarizes what little is known in terms of numeric estimates for the global burden of surgical disease. Globally, access and availability of surgical care in developing countries remains scarce, but the problem is receiving more attention for the first time in surgical circles. Much work remains in the effort to obtain reliable estimates of the global burden of surgical disease.

The Association Between Hypothermia, Prehospital Cooling, and Mortality in Burn Victims

OBJECTIVES Hypothermia is associated with increased morbidity and mortality in trauma victims. The prognostic value of hypothermia on emergency department (ED) presentation in burn victims is not well known. The objective of this study was to determine the incidence of hypothermia in burn victims and its association with mortality and hospital length of stay (LOS). The study also examined the potential causative role of prehospital cooling in hypothermic burn patients. METHODS This was a retrospective review of a county trauma registry. The county was both suburban and rural, with a population of 1.5 million and with one burn center. Burn patients between 1994 and 2007 who met trauma registry criteria were included. Demographic and clinical data including prehospital cooling, burn size and depth, and presence of inhalation injury were collected. Hypothermia was defined as a core body temperature of less than or equal to 35 degrees C. Data analysis consisted of univariate associations between patient characteristics and hypothermia. RESULTS There were 1,215 burn patients from 1994 to 2007. Mean age (+/-standard deviation [+/-SD]) was 29 (+/-24) years, 67% were male, 248 (26.7%) had full-thickness burns, and 24 (2.6%) had inhalation injury. Only 17 (1.8%) had a burn larger than 70% total body surface area (TBSA). A total of 929 (76%) patients had an initial ED temperature recorded. Only 15/929 (1.6%) burn patients had hypothermia on arrival, and all were mild (lowest temperature was 32.6 degrees C). There was no association between sex, year, and presence of inhalation injury with hypothermia. Hypothermic patients were older (44 years vs. 29 years, p = 0.01), and median Injury Severity Score (ISS) was higher (25 vs. 4, p = 0.002) than for nonhypothermic patients. Hypothermia was present in 6/17 (35%) patients with a TBSA of 70% or greater and in 8/869 (0.9%) patients with a TBSA of <70% (p < 0.001). Mortality was higher in hypothermic patients (60% vs. 3%, p < 0.001). None of the hypothermic patients received prehospital cooling. CONCLUSIONS Hypothermia on presentation to the ED was noted in 1.6% of all burn victims in this trauma registry. Hypothermia was more common in very large burns and was associated with high mortality. In this series, prehospital cooling did not appear to contribute to hypothermia.

Rapid and selective enzymatic debridement of porcine comb burns with bromelain-derived Debrase: acute-phase preservation of noninjured tissue and zone of stasis.

Deep burns are associated with the formation of an eschar, which delays healing and increases the risk of infection. Surgical debridement of the eschar is, at present, the fastest means to achieve an eschar-free bed, but the process can not differentiate between the viable tissue and the eschar and follow the minute irregularities of the interface between the two. We evaluated the efficacy and selectivity of a novel enzymatic bromelain-based debriding agent, Debrase® Gel Dressing (Debrase®), in a porcine comb burn model. We hypothesized that Debrase® would result in rapid debridement of the eschar without adverse effects on the surrounding uninjured skin. This is a prospective, controlled, animal experiment. Five domestic pigs (20–25 kg) were used in this study. Sixteen burns were created on each animals dorsum using a brass comb with four rectangular prongs preheated in boiling water and applied for 30 seconds, resulting in four rectangular 10 × 20 mm full-thickness burns and separated by three 5 × 20 mm unburned interspaces representing the zone of stasis. The burned keratin layer (blisters) was removed, and the burns were treated with a single, topical, Debrase® or control vehicle application for 4 hours. The Debrase®/control was then wiped off using a metal forceps handle, and the burns were treated with a topical silver sulfadiazine (SSD). The wounds were observed, and full-thickness biopsies were obtained at 4 and 48 hours for evidence of dermal thickness, vascular thrombosis, and burn depth, both within the comb burns and the unburned interspaces in between them. Chi-square and t tests are used for data analysis. A single 4-hour topical application of Debrase® resulted in rapid and complete eschar dissolution of all the burns in which the keratin layer was removed. The remaining dermis was thinner (1.1 ± 0.7 mm) than in the control burns (2.1 ± 0.3 mm; difference 0.9 mm [95% confidence interval: 0.3–1.4]) and was viable with no injury to the normal surrounding skin or to the unburned interspaces between the burns, which represents the zone of stasis. In control burns, the entire thickness of the dermis was necrotic. At 48 hours, Debrase®-treated areas were found partially desiccated under SSD treatment. The unburned interspaces demonstrated partial-thickness necrosis in two third and full-thickness necrosis in one third of wounds. In contrast, full-thickness necrosis was noted in all control interspaces (P = .05). In a porcine comb burn model, a single, 4-hour topical application of Debrase® resulted in rapid removal of the necrotic layer of the dermis with preservation of unburned tissues. At 48 hours, SSD treatment resulted in superficial tissue damage and partial preservation of the unburned interspaces.

Curcumin reduces injury progression in a rat comb burn model.

The oriental spice curcumin has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. When given orally before injury, curcumin reduces burn progression in a rat comb burn model. The authors hypothesized that intravenous administration of curcumin after injury would reduce burn progression and that its effects are mediated through iron chelation. Two comb burns were created on the dorsum of Sprague-Dawley rats (weight, 300 g) using a brass comb with four rectangular prongs preheated in boiling water and applied for 30 seconds resulting in four rectangular 10 × 20 mm full-thickness burns separated by three 5 × 20 mm unburned interspaces (zone of ischemia). Animals were randomized to receive one of four doses of crude curcumin or one of six doses of purified curcumin intravenously 1 and 24 hours after injury. Another set of animals were randomized to deferoxamine or control vehicle. Wounds were observed at 7 days after injury for visual evidence of necrosis in the unburned interspaces. Full-thickness biopsies from the interspaces were evaluated with Hematoxylin and Eosin staining 7 days after injury for evidence of necrosis. The percentage of unburned interspaces undergoing necrosis at 1 week by purified curcumin doses was 0 &mgr;g/kg, 74%; 0.3 &mgr;g/kg, 58%; 1 &mgr;g/kg, 53%; 3 &mgr;g/kg, 37%; 10 &mgr;g/kg, 63%; 30 &mgr;g/kg, 53%; and 100 &mgr;g/kg, 26%. The differences among the groups were significant (P = .03). When compared with controls, the 1 and 3 &mgr;g/kg curcumin treatment groups had significantly less progression of interspaces to necrosis (P = .04 and .002) as did the 30 and 100 &mgr;g/kg treatment groups (P = .03 and <.001). Deferoxamine did not reduce burn progression. When administered intravenously 1 and 24 hours after injury, both crude and purified curcumin reduce the percentage of unburned interspaces that undergo necrosis in a rat hot comb burn model. The effects of purified curcumin appear to be bimodal, suggesting more than one mechanism of action. The effects of curcumin do not appear to be mediated by iron chelation.

The current management of skin tears

Each year, there are more than 1 million skin tears among the elderly and disabled. Because of their fragile nature, management of skin tears can be very challenging. Methods of wound closure should minimize additional trauma to the skin and promote an optimal wound healing environment while minimizing the risk of infection. The current article reviews the etiology, risk factors, classification, and therapeutic options for treating skin tears. We also review preventive measures to help reduce the incidence of skin tears.

Validation of a porcine comb burn model

OBJECTIVE A brass comb burn model that creates 3 full-thickness burns separated by 3 interspaces of unburned skin representing the zone of ischemia has been described in rats. We evaluated this model in pigs. METHODS Design--observational. Subjects--6 pigs (20-25 kg). Interventions--4 burns created on each animal on the dorsum using a brass comb with 4 rectangular prongs preheated in boiling water and applied for 30 seconds resulting in 4 rectangular 10 x 20-mm full-thickness burns separated by three 5 x 20-mm unburned interspaces. Outcomes--wounds observed at 1, 2, 3, and 7 days for evidence of necrosis in unburned interspaces. Full-thickness biopsies from interspaces were evaluated with hematoxylin-eosin staining 7 days after injury for evidence of necrosis. Data analysis--the percentages of interspaces progressing to necrosis were analyzed with descriptive statistics. RESULTS Twenty-four comb burns with 72 unburned interspaces were created evenly distributed between the animals. The percentages of interspaces that progressed to full-thickness necrosis at 1, 2, 3, and 7 days after injury were 88.9% (64/72; 95% confidence interval [CI], 79.6%-94.3%), 88.9% (64/72; 95% CI, 79.6%-94.3%), 88.9% (64/72; 95% CI, 79.6%-94.3%), and 97.7% (70/72; 95% CI, 90.4%-99.2%), respectively. There was perfect agreement between gross inspection and histomorphology. CONCLUSIONS The comb burn model in swine results in the progression of most unburned ischemic interspaces to full-thickness necrosis within 1 to 7 days.

Ventilator-associated pneumonia in pediatric trauma patients.

Background: Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a significant cause of secondary morbidity and mortality in adult trauma patients. No study has characterized VAP in pediatric trauma patients. We determined the rates of and potential risk factors for VAP in pediatric trauma patients. Methods: A countywide trauma registry identified all pediatric trauma patients with potential VAP treated at a Regional Trauma Center. After a structured chart review, descriptive statistics were used to characterize the population. Results: One hundred fifty-eight trauma patients younger than 16 years requiring intubation and mechanical ventilation were identified in 3388 pediatric trauma admissions from the period 1995-2006. Drownings and poisonings were excluded. The registry identified 14 potential VAPs, of which, on detailed review, 7 were true cases. The VAP rate for pediatric trauma patients was 0.2% overall or 4.4% of those mechanically ventilated. In addition, ventilator days were available in the registry from 2003 forward and the rate in ventilator days was found to be 13.83/1000. Although higher than the overall pediatric intensive care unit VAP rate (5.93/1000 ventilator days), the pediatric trauma VAP rate was substantially lower than the VAP rate in adult trauma patients (58.25/1000 ventilator days). On chart review, six of the seven patients were male and older than 10 years (mean age, 11.9 years). All seven patients with VAP were blunt trauma victims with head injury (mean initial Glasgow Coma Score, 5.6) with Injury Severity Scores over 25 (mean, 32.1). Pulmonary contusion was present in four of the seven. Although the in-hospital mortality rate of ventilated pediatric trauma patients was 17.1%, there was no mortality in those with VAP. Conclusions: The rate of VAP in pediatric trauma patients is substantially lower than in similar adults. Age older than 10 years, blunt trauma, head injury, and Injury Severity Score >25 may be risk factors. VAP is not associated with increased mortality in pediatric trauma patients.