Brenda R.J. Jansen

Children's knowledge of the earth : A new methodological and statistical approach

In the field of childrens knowledge of the earth, much debate has concerned the question of whether childrens naive knowledge-that is, their knowledge before they acquire the standard scientific theory-is coherent (i.e., theory-like) or fragmented. We conducted two studies with large samples (N=328 and N=381) using a new paper-and-pencil test, denoted the EARTH (EArth Representation Test for cHildren), to discriminate between these two alternatives. We performed latent class analyses on the responses to the EARTH to test mental models associated with these alternatives. The naive mental models, as formulated by Vosniadou and Brewer, were not supported by the results. The results indicated that childrens knowledge of the earth becomes more consistent as children grow older. These findings support the view that childrens naive knowledge is fragmented.

Age-related changes in decision making: comparing informed and noninformed situations

Advantageous decision making progressively develops into early adulthood, most specifically in complex and motivationally salient decision situations in which direct feedback on gains and losses is provided (Figner & Weber, 2011). However, the factors that underlie this developmental improvement in decision making are still not well understood. The current study therefore investigates 2 potential factors, long-term memory and working memory, by assigning a large developmental sample (7-29 years of age) to a condition with either high or low demands on long-term and working memory. The first condition featured an age-adapted version of the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994; i.e., a noninformed situation), whereas the second condition provided an external store where explicit information on gains, losses, and probabilities per choice option was presented (i.e., an informed situation). Consistent with previous developmental IGT studies, children up to age 12 did not learn to prefer advantageous options in the noninformed condition. In contrast, all age groups learned to prefer the advantageous options in the informed conditions, although a slight developmental increase in advantageous decision making remained. These results indicate that lowering dependence on long-term and working memory improves childrens advantageous decision making. The results additionally suggest that other factors, like inhibitory control processes, may play an additional role in the development of advantageous decision making.

What response times tell of children’s behavior on the balance scale task

Analysis of accuracy of responses to balance scale problems gives a global idea of the cognitive processes that underlie problem-solving behavior on this task. We show that response times (RTs) provide additional detailed information about the kind and duration of these processes. We derive predictions about the RTs from Sieglers (1981) model for the balance scale task, including the counterintuitive prediction that young adults are slower than children in solving particular balance scale problems. The predictions were tested in a study in which 191 6- to 22-year-old participants were presented with a computerized balance scale task. RTs were analyzed with regression models. In addition to qualitative differences between items, we also modeled quantitative differences between items in the regression models. Analyses supported the predictions and provided additional knowledge on the rules. Rule II was reformulated as a rule that always involves the encoding, but not always the correct application of the distance cue. RTs provided evidence for the use of a buggy-rule and not an addition-rule. Finally, a relation between rule inconsistency and increased RT was found.

Development of decision making: sequential versus integrative rules

Decisions can be made by applying a variety of decision-making rules-sequential rules in which decisions are based on a sequential evaluation of choice dimensions and the integrative normative rule in which decisions are based on an integration of choice dimensions. In this study, we investigated the developmental trajectory of such decision-making rules. In the Gambling Machine Task, participants choose between options that differ in three dimensions: frequency of loss, amount of loss, and certain gain. The task was administered to 231 children and adolescents (age range=8-17 years). Latent group analysis of their performance allowed precise classification of the underlying decision rules. The majority of participants used sequential decision rules, and the number of evaluated dimensions in these rules increased with age. Integrative rule use decreased with age. We discuss these results in light of traditional developmental theories and fuzzy trace theory.

Re-thinking stages of cognitive development: An appraisal of connectionist models of the balance scale task

The present paper re-appraises connectionist attempts to explain how human cognitive development appears to progress through a series of sequential stages. Models of performance on the Piagetian balance scale task are the focus of attention. Limitations of these models are discussed and replications and extensions to the work are provided via the Cascade-Correlation algorithm. An application of multi-group latent class analysis for examining performance of the networks is described and these results reveal fundamental functional characteristics of the networks. Evidence is provided that strongly suggests that the networks are unable to acquire a mastery of torque and, although they do recover certain rules of operation that humans do, they also show a propensity to acquire rules never previously seen.

Constrained and Unconstrained Multivariate Normal Finite Mixture Modeling of Piagetian Data.

We present the results of multivariate normal mixture modeling of Piagetian data. The sample consists of 101 children, who carried out a (pseudo-)conservation computer task on four occasions. We fitted both cross-sectional mixture models, and longitudinal models based on a Markovian transition model. Piagetian theory of cognitive development provides a strong basis for the number and interpretation of the components in the mixtures. Most studies of Piagetian development have been based on mixture modeling of discrete responses. The present results show that normal mixture modeling is a useful approach, when responses are continuous and approximately normal within the components. Multivariate normal mixture modeling has the advantage that the covariance structure within the components may be modeled. Generally the results are consistent with the presence of distinct modes of responding. This provides support for the hypothesis of stage-wise development.

Math practice and its influence on math skills and executive functions in adolescents with mild to borderline intellectual disability.

Adolescents with mild to borderline intellectual disability (MBID) often complete schooling without mastering basic math skills, even though basic math is essential for math-related challenges in everyday life. Limited attention to cognitive skills and low executive functioning (EF) may cause this delay. We aimed to improve math skills in an MBID-sample using computerized math training. Also, it was investigated whether EF and math performance were related and whether computerized math training had beneficial effects on EF. The sample consisted of a total of 58 adolescents (12-15 years) from special education. Participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group or a treatment as usual (TAU) group. In the experimental condition, participants received 5 weeks of training. Math performance and EF were assessed before and after the training period. Math performance improved equally in both groups. However, frequently practicing participants improved more than participants in the control group. Visuo-spatial memory skills were positively related to addition and subtraction skills. Transfer effects from math training to EF were absent. It is concluded that math skills may increase if a reasonable effort in practicing math skills is made. The relation between visuo-spatial memory skills provides opportunities for improving math performance.

The role of pattern recognition in children's exact enumeration of small numbers

Enumeration can be accomplished by subitizing, counting, estimation, and combinations of these processes. We investigated whether the dissociation between subitizing and counting can be observed in 4- to 6-year-olds and studied whether the maximum number of elements that can be subitized changes with age. To detect a dissociation between subitizing and counting, it is tested whether task manipulations have different effects in the subitizing than in the counting range. Task manipulations concerned duration of presentation of elements (limited, unlimited) and configuration of elements (random, line, dice). In Study 1, forty-nine 4- and 5-year-olds were tested with a computerized enumeration task. Study 2 concerned data from 4-, 5-, and 6-year-olds, collected with Math Garden, a computer-adaptive application to practice math. Both task manipulations affected performance in the counting, but not the subitizing range, supporting the conclusion that children use two distinct enumeration processes in the two ranges. In all age groups, the maximum number of elements that could be subitized was three. The strong effect of configuration of elements suggests that subitizing might be based on a general ability of pattern recognition.

Decomposing developmental differences in probabilistic feedback learning: A combined performance and heart-rate analysis

Learning on the basis of outcome feedback shows pronounced developmental changes, however, much is still unknown about its underlying processes. In the current study, we aimed at decomposing how value updating, feedback monitoring and executing behavioral control contribute to childrens probabilistic feedback learning. Children (ages 8-9), young adolescents (ages 11-13) and young adults (ages 18-24), performed two probabilistic feedback tasks: one required building a value representation on the basis of feedback (noninformed task), while in the other value representations were explicitly presented (informed task). Heart-rate was recorded to augment performance measures of feedback processing. We observed substantial developmental differences in heart-rate responses toward feedback in the noninformed task. Adults heart-rate slowed more to negative compared to positive feedback relative to the children and young adolescents. In contrast, in the informed task all age groups showed larger heart-rate slowing toward negative compared to positive feedback. These results indicate that children are not impaired in monitoring probabilistic feedback per se, but have a specific deficit in building a task-appropriate value representation on the basis of probabilistic feedback.

Developmental and gender related differences in response switches after nonrepresentative negative feedback

In many decision making tasks negative feedback is probabilistic and, as a consequence, may be given when the decision is actually correct. This feedback can be referred to as nonrepresentative negative feedback. In the current study, we investigated developmental and gender related differences in such switching after nonrepresentative negative feedback. Participants performed a new probabilistic negative feedback task in which properties of choice options were known to the participants; therefore, they did not have to learn the correct response. The task was administered to a developmental sample between 8 and 16 years of age (N = 170). Results indicated that switching after nonrepresentative negative feedback decreased with age and that this switching was more pronounced in females than in males. We discuss results in light of an imbalance between emotional and inhibition systems and tentatively conclude that it is likely that the age related differences are predominantly related to the strength of the inhibition system, whereas the gender related differences are predominantly related to the strength of the emotional system.