Brent L. Smith

Crime in the country: The vulnerability and victimization of rural citizens

Abstract While a considerable body of research, theory, and statistics has developed concerning the “urban crime problem” in America, crime in rural areas has been comparatively neglected. This study addresses that neglect by refining and extending National Crime Panel victimization survey techniques to elicit the victimization experiences, perceptions, fears, and actions of residents of a highly representative rural county in the midwestern United States. The implications of this study are discussed, including the need to educate rural citizens concerning crime prevention in order to reduce their vulnerability to continued victimization. The data suggest that the romanticization surrounding rural America may help mask the fact that increasing diffusion of criminal behavior, along with increasing homogenization of our society, have significantly eroded the rural/urban dichotomy which has dominated criminological inquiry.

Terrorists right and left: Empirical issues in profiling American terrorists

Although recent efforts have been made to profile American terrorists, these efforts have been hampered by severe methodological difficulties, from the way in which terrorism was defined, to the identification of potential cases, to the methods used in sample selection. The current study utilizes a data base created from a list of persons indicted under the FBIs Counterterrorism Program from 1980 through 1989. This information was supplemented by case files from federal district courts and the U.S. Department of Justice and verified through demographic and sentencing data on each subject from the Administrative Office of U.S. Courts. The sample includes over 200 terrorists from 21 terrorist organizations, who had been indicted for over 1300 violations of federal criminal law. Analysis of the data reveals substantial differences from traditionally accepted descriptions of terrorists. Of singular interest is the finding that American terrorists tend to be significantly older, on average, then previous stud...

The Impact of Race on Parole Decision‐Making

In an attempt to discover the major predictors of (1) selection for parole consideration and (2) parole release decision‐making in one Southeastern state, this study examined the cases of 762 inmates under the supervision of the Alabama Department of Corrections who were eligible for parole from 1 June 1993 through 31 May 1994. Alabama uses a two‐stage process: the preliminary screening stage to determine if the inmate should be considered for parole and the parole release stage. The two dependent variables in the study were: decision to select an inmate for parole consideration and parole release disposition. Of the 762 eligible inmates, only 299 were selected for a parole release hearing, and only 128 (43 percent) were granted parole. At the preliminary release stage, the most significant predictors were seriousness of the offense, time served, total disciplinaries, and recommendations from the Institutional parole officer, while recommendations given by prison personnel were the only variables impacting release decisions. Results showed that race did not have a significant impact on decisions at the preliminary screening stage or the parole release stage. Although Black inmates comprised over 60 percent of the population of inmates eligible for release and those selected for a hearing and Whites comprised less than 40 percent of both groups, only 42 percent of the Black inmates were released compared to 43 percent of the White inmates. A major concern of the study was the generalizability of the findings. At the conclusion of the study, the question was can these findings which focused on Class A felonies where there was injury to the victim be generalized to states where the laws and parole procedures might be different?

Their Day in Court: Assessing Guilty Plea Rates Among Terrorists

Individuals who are charged for traditional crimes are substantially more likely to plead guilty than individuals who are charged under the same statutes but who are officially involved in terrorism (Smith & Damphousse, 1998). Relying on a structural–contextual theory framework, a quantitative analysis not only confirmed that terrorists plead guilty more often than traditional offenders but that the defendant’s age and number of counts in the indictment are important predictors. Directions for future research are suggested.

Geospatial and Temporal Patterns of Preparatory Conduct among American Terrorists

Although terrorism research has made significant strides during the past five years, even the most rudimentary patterns of terrorists’ behaviors remain unknown to scholars and analysts. In the current study, we analyze spatial and temporal patterns of criminal acts related to a variety of American terrorism cases and attempt to provide insight into these questions: 1) where do terrorists live in relation to the targets they select, 2) do they plan and prepare their acts of terrorism relatively close to the target or do they intentionally conduct these activities far from the target, 3) what types of preparatory activities do the terrorists usually commit, and 4) how long is this planning process and does it vary by group type? Results from this study allow us to draw the following conclusions. First, about one‐half of terrorists both reside and prepare for their terrorist incidents within a thirty‐mile radius of their residences, although the radius of activity shows significant variation based on group type. Second, the temporal dimensions of terrorist activity reveal that terrorist planning and preparation is more complex than originally anticipated. Finally, while the interaction between time and space has not been addressed, our initial impressions of our temporal and spatial data suggest a scenario much like a predator closing in on a prey—as the planned incident draws nearer temporally, the spatial events also draw nearer to the target location. What our initial data have not revealed is whether these events are temporally and spatially sequenced in such a way that they can be of predictive value. Our study suggests the importance of further research in specific areas, including the identification of the prevalent types of preparatory and ancillary crimes terrorists commit in preparation for a terrorist incident, the identification of patterns of preparatory criminal activity that might either alert law enforcement officials to the existence of terrorist group activities or identify characteristic preparatory offenses, temporal sequencing of preparatory acts in relation to completed acts of terrorism, and geographic patterns to assist in threat assessment.

The Time Penalty: Examining the Relationship Between Time to Conviction and Trial vs. Plea Disparities in Sentencing

Although studies of sentencing routinely find that defendants who plead guilty receive relatively lenient sentences compared with similarly situated defendants convicted by trial, we have yet to fully understand the role of “mode of conviction” in the sentencing process. In particular, we know little about how the size of the disparity between guilty pleas and trial convictions may depend upon time in case processing, or the timing of pleas; that is, when during the process defendants plead guilty. This is a considerable issue, as “time” often is central to explanations given for plea-trial disparities. The current study examines this central, yet seldom empirically captured, dimension of the sentencing process. Using information gathered in an ancillary data collection effort operated under the supervision of the American Terrorism Study, we differentiate between the mode of conviction and time to conviction and explore the role of “time” in sentence severity, especially with regard to the plea-trial disparity. While consisting of defendants identified in connection with terrorism investigations, and sentenced in federal courts, our study takes advantages of a unique opportunity to isolate the effects of time from the mode of disposition and to explore time correlates of sentencing outcomes. In doing so, we raise important questions about the multiple ways in which time and mode of conviction may affect sentencing more generally and contribute to the larger theoretical discussions of how punishment decisions are made.

Sentence Disparity and the Judge-Jury Sentencing Debate: An Analysis of Robbery Sentences in Six Southern States:

Concern over sentence disparity has prompted several states in recent years to alter their sentencing strategy by removing sanctioning authority from juries and investing judges with this power. Little research, however, has examined the difference between sentences imposed by judges and those imposed by juries. This article reviews sentencing patterns in six southern states over a twenty-five year period from 1957-1982. Three states utilizing only judge sentencing, two states using solely jury sentencing, and one state which changedfrom jury to judge sentencing during this time period were examined. The data reveal that while states utilizing judge sentencing gave more consistent sentences from 1957 to 1977, recent trends indicate that the disparity in judge sentencing has risen to a level that approximates the disparity in jury imposed sentences. The data also indicate a substantial increase in the mean sentence given to robbery defendants during the past five years regardless of the sentencing authority.

Opportunity, Group Structure, Temporal Patterns, and Successful Outcomes of Far-Right Terrorism Incidents in the United States:

Terrorism prevention has become the top priority among law enforcement and homeland security officials. To date, however, little empirical research has been conducted that directly compares the characteristics of successful terrorist attacks to failed and foiled terrorism incidents. To address this limitation in prior research, the current study examines the impact of opportunity, group structure, and temporally patterned precursor activities on far-right terrorism outcomes in the United States using data from the American Terrorism Study (ATS). Our findings partially support expectations that attractive and vulnerable targets, loners, conventional weaponry, and relatively fewer precursor activities are significantly associated with successful incidents.

Punishing Terrorists A Re-Examination of U.S. Federal Sentencing in the Postguidelines Era

The empirical literature on the theory and practice of sentencing politically motivated offenders such as terrorists in U.S. federal courts is limited. Thus, we know relatively little about the dealings between terrorist offenders and the criminal justice system or how these interactions may be influenced by changes in American legal or political context. This study summarizes previous findings relative to sentencing disparity among terrorists and nonterrorists in U.S. federal courts prior to the imposition of the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines. We then identify events occurring after the advent of the guidelines, including the early acts of terrorism on American soil. We evaluate the sentencing of terrorists versus nonterrorists following the confluence imposition of the guidelines and these events. We determine whether and how the sentencing disparity between terrorist and nonterrorist has changed since the implementation of the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines and the terrorist events of the early 1990s. Based on our findings, we put forth suggestions as to the possible ways these conditions may have affected sentencing outcomes.

The Emergence of Lone Wolf Terrorism: Patterns of Behavior and Implications for Intervention

Abstract Purpose In this chapter, we examine several attributes of lone wolf terrorists and how their activities are temporally and geospatially patterned. In particular, we demonstrate how precursor behaviors and attack characteristics of lone wolves are similar and different compared to those of group-based terrorists. Methodology/approach Based on data drawn from the American Terrorism Study (ATS), we examine 268 federal terrorism “indictees” linked to 264 incidents. Three types of loners are identified based on group affiliations and levels of assistance in preparing for and executing terrorist attacks. A series of analyses comparatively examine loners who had no assistance and those actors that did. Findings The results of this study suggest that lone wolf terrorists are more educated and socially isolated than group-based actors. Lone wolves also engage in less precursor activities than group actors, but are willing to travel greater distances to prepare for and execute attacks. Explanations for why lone wolves are able to “survive” longer than terrorist groups by avoiding arrest may in part stem from their ability to temporally and geospatially position their planning and preparatory activities. Originality/value Studies on lone wolf terrorism remain few and many are plagued by methodological and conceptual limitations. The current study adds to this growing literature by relying on lone wolf terrorism data recently made available by the American Terrorism Study (ATS). Our findings are valuable for members of the law enforcement and intelligence communities responsible for the early detection and prevention of lone wolf terrorism in the United States.