Brett R.C. Molesworth

Predicting Pilots’ Risk-Taking Behavior Through an Implicit Association Test

Objective: The Implicit Association Test (IAT), in combination with a battery of additional psychometric tests, was employed to examine the accuracy with which it predicts pilots’ risk-taking behavior. Background: Risk management is an integral part of piloting. Many factors affect pilots’ risk management, including individual differences. Therefore, employing a unique methodology from social cognition, the present study examined the influence of attitude, as measured implicitly through the IAT, personality, and flight experience variables on pilots’ risk-taking behavior. Method: In addition to a simulated flight on a computer-based flight simulator, 35 pilots completed a battery of psychometric tests. Results: Among the 6 risk perception variables, 10 risk attitude variables, and 2 experience variables, only 2 variables were found to be significantly related with in-flight risk-taking behavior: everyday risk (risk perception) and the IAT effect (attitude). Of these, the IAT effect was the strongest predictor of flight behavior. Conclusion: The results indicate that implicit attitudinal measures, such as the IAT, provide a more accurate forecast of pilot behavior than do the more traditional explicit attitudinal or personality measures. Application: An implicit attitudinal measure can be proactively employed to identify pilots who are potentially more likely to engage in high-risk activities, hence permitting a more strategic approach to pilot training.

Application of a human factors classification framework for patient safety to identify precursor and contributing factors to adverse clinical incidents in hospital

This study aimed to identify temporal precursor and associated contributing factors for adverse clinical incidents in a hospital setting using the Human Factors Classification Framework (HFCF) for patient safety. A random sample of 498 clinical incidents were reviewed. The framework identified key precursor events (PE), contributing factors (CF) and the prime causes of incidents. Descriptive statistics and correspondence analysis were used to examine incident characteristics. Staff action was the most common type of PE identified. Correspondence analysis for all PEs that involved staff action by error type showed that rule-based errors were strongly related to performing medical or monitoring tasks or the administration of medication. Skill-based errors were strongly related to misdiagnoses. Factors relating to the organisation (66.9%) or the patient (53.2%) were the most commonly identified CFs. The HFCF for patient safety was able to identify patterns of causation for the clinical incidents, highlighting the need for targeted preventive approaches, based on an understanding of how and why incidents occur.

The effect on recognition memory of noise cancelling headphones in a noisy environment with native and nonnative speakers

Noise has the potential to impair cognitive performance. For nonnative speakers, the effect of noise on performance is more severe than their native counterparts. What remains unknown is the effectiveness of countermeasures such as noise attenuating devices in such circumstances. Therefore, the main aim of the present research was to examine the effectiveness of active noise attenuating countermeasures in the presence of simulated aircraft noise for both native and nonnative English speakers. Thirty-two participants, half native English speakers and half native German speakers completed four recognition (cued) recall tasks presented in English under four different audio conditions, all in the presence of simulated aircraft noise. The results of the research indicated that in simulated aircraft noise at 65 dB(A), performance of nonnative English speakers was poorer than for native English speakers. The beneficial effects of noise cancelling headphones in improving the signal to noise ratio led to an improved performance for nonnative speakers. These results have particular importance for organizations operating in a safety-critical environment such as aviation.

Repairing faulty scripts to reduce speeding behaviour in young drivers.

BACKGROUNDnYoung drivers under the age of 25 throughout the world continue to be over-represented in motor vehicle accidents (WHO, 2007). A contributing factor to a large number of these motor vehicle accidents is speeding. Reducing drivers tendency to speed remains a challenge. In aviation, one method that has yielded positive results in terms of improving pilots risk management behaviour involves engaging pilots cognitively in the task (Molesworth et al., 2006). This type of training is hypothesized to repair faulty cognitive structures known as scripts. Therefore, the main aim of the present research was to examine the utility of a training program where drivers are actively engaged following a driving episode by giving them personalised feedback in order to reduce their tendency to speed.nnnMETHODn58 young (16-24 years) motorists were divided into four groups. All participants completed both a training session followed by a test session one week apart. Training consisted of either, reading three accident cases involving speeding, cases with rules associated with the offence, a simulated drive with personalised post-drive feedback regarding speeding and its legal ramifications or a card sorting task (control). The main dependent variables were percentage of distance speeding and frequency of zone violations during the simulated drive in the test session.nnnRESULTSnA series of planned contrast analysis with family-wise error corrected at .017 revealed that receiving personalised feedback regarding speeding behaviour following a simulated drive significantly reduced speeding tendency in the test session, when compared to control. Reading case examples alone, or coupled with rules, appeared to have no impact on speeding behaviour, compared to control.nnnCONCLUSIONnThe results suggest that training programs that actively engage individuals about a driving episode by providing them with personalised feedback may be effective in curbing young drivers speeding behaviour. These results are discussed from a theoretical and applied perspective.

Examining the Effectiveness of Pre-Flight Cabin Safety Announcements in Commercial Aviation

The aim of this study was to test 3 different pre-flight safety videos (no humor, with humor, and use of a celebrity) in terms of their memorability for the key safety messages. A secondary aim was to test changes in participants’ mood as a result of being exposed to different safety videos. Sixty-one participants completed the study and were tested at 2 different intervals for recall of key safety messages (postvideo exposure and 2-hr follow-up), and at 3 different intervals for their mood (pre-exposure to video, postvideo, and 2-hr follow-up). The use of a celebrity or humor in the pre-flight safety video proved effective in terms of memory for key safety messages, and the video containing humor was the only video to positively influence individuals’ mood.

Using the effect of alcohol as a comparison to illustrate the detrimental effects of noise on performance

The aim of the present research is to provide a user-friendly index of the relative impairment associated with noise in the aircraft cabin. As such, the relative effect of noise, at a level typical of an aircraft cabin was compared with varying levels of alcohol intoxication in the same subjects. Since the detrimental effect of noise is more pronounced on non-native speakers, both native English and non-native English speakers featured in the study. Noise cancelling headphones were also tested as a simple countermeasure to mitigate the effect of noise on performance. A total of 32 participants, half of which were non-native English speakers, completed a cued recall task in two alcohol conditions (blood alcohol concentration 0.05 and 0.10) and two audio conditions (audio played through the speaker and noise cancelling headphones). The results revealed that aircraft noise at 65 dB (A) negatively affected performance to a level comparable to alcohol intoxication of 0.10. The results also supported previous research that reflects positively on the benefits of noise cancelling headphones in reducing the effects of noise on performance especially for non-native English speakers. These findings provide for personnel involved in the aviation industry, a user-friendly index of the relative impairment associated with noise in the aircraft cabin as compared with the effects of alcohol. They also highlight the benefits of a simple countermeasure such as noise cancelling headphones in mitigating some of the detrimental effects of noise on performance.

Defining the drivers for accepting decision making automation in air traffic management

Air Traffic Management (ATM) operators are under increasing pressure to improve the efficiency of their operation to cater for forecasted increases in air traffic movements. One solution involves increasing the utilisation of automation within the ATM system. The success of this approach is contingent on Air Traffic Control Operators (ATCOs) willingness to accept increased levels of automation. The main aim of the present research was to examine the drivers underpinning ATCOs willingness to accept increased utilisation of automation within their role. Two fictitious scenarios involving the application of two new automated decision-making tools were created. The results of an online survey revealed traditional predictors of automation acceptance such as age, trust and job satisfaction explain between 4 and 7% of the variance. Furthermore, these predictors varied depending on the purpose in which the automation was to be employed. These results are discussed from an applied and theoretical perspective. Statement of Relevance: Efficiency improvements in ATM are required to cater for forecasted increases in air traffic movements. One solution is to increase the utilisation of automation within Air Traffic Control. The present research examines the drivers underpinning air traffic controllers willingness to accept increased levels of automation in their role.

Promoting learning, memory, and transfer in a time-constrained, high hazard environment

Two methods of metacognitive reflection for promoting compliance with an aviation safety rule were tested in a transfer design. Two groups of pilots (n = 10) conducted a simulated flight entailing a search for a target on the ground. During this flight, only 35% of the pilots stayed above an altitude of 500 ft, the minimum allowed by relevant regulations. Following the flight, one group completed a self-explanation questionnaire, in which they explained their actions during the initial flight and what they would do in future flights. The other group completed a relapse-prevention questionnaire, in which they identified the circumstances leading to safety lapses and their future avoidance. A third group (n = 10) formed a rest control; they conducted a familiarization flight without a ground target or debriefing. One week later, all pilots conducted a series of test flights with the same or different ground targets as the initial flight. The self-explanation group showed 100% compliance when the ground target remained the same, but less so (<70%) when the ground target was different. The relapse-prevention group and control groups both showed low levels of compliance across all test flights (<30%). The results are discussed from theoretical and applied perspectives.

Rehearsal and verbal reminders in facilitating compliance with safety rules

Accidents and incidents often occur, because a basic and seemingly simple rule is forgotten, either unintentionally (error, lapse) or with some degree of deliberate negligence (violation). The present experiment examined the utility of a rehearsal and a last-minute reminder in reducing the magnitude of deviations from an important safety rule by qualified, but relatively inexperienced pilots, specifically, remaining above an altitude of 500-ft. A single rehearsal flight entailing a search for a target on the ground increased the minimum altitude in later flights, but this positive effect did not completely generalize when the target on the ground was changed. These results suggest that the rehearsal flight was encoded in a context-specific manner. The addition of an explicit, last minute reminder about the mandated minimum altitude just before each test flight failed to significantly alter the pilots behavior. The results are discussed with respect to their theoretical and practical implications.

A review of the use of human factors classification frameworks that identify causal factors for adverse events in the hospital setting

Various human factors classification frameworks have been used to identified causal factors for clinical adverse events. A systematic review was conducted to identify human factors classification frameworks that identified the causal factors (including human error) of adverse events in a hospital setting. Six electronic databases were searched, identifying 1997 articles and 38 of these met inclusion criteria. Most studies included causal contributing factors as well as error and error type, but the nature of coding varied considerably between studies. The ability of human factors classification frameworks to provide information on specific causal factors for an adverse event enables the focus of preventive attention on areas where improvements are most needed. This review highlighted some areas needing considerable improvement in order to meet this need, including better definition of terms, more emphasis on assessing reliability of coding and greater sophistication in analysis of results of the classification. Practitioner Summary: Human factors classification frameworks can be used to identify causal factors of clinical adverse events. However, this review suggests that existing frameworks are diverse, limited in their identification of the context of human error and have poor reliability when used by different individuals.