Brian A. Chopko

The Relation Between Mindfulness and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms Among Police Officers

Mindfulness-based treatments have been identified as potentially effective for reducing posttraumatic stress symptoms; however, the validity of research has been questioned, especially among first responders, due to ill-defined aspects of mindfulness. This study investigated the relationship between various dimensions of mindfulness (utilizing the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills; KIMS) and posttraumatic stress symptoms (utilizing the Impact of Event Scale-Revised; IES-R) among active-duty police officers (N = 183). Multiple regression analyses showed that greater IES-R avoidance and intrusion subscale scores were predicted by lower KIMS accepting without judgment subscale scores. Greater IES-R hyperarousal subscale scores were predicted by lower KIMS accepting without judgment and describing subscale scores. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Associations Between Police Stress and Alcohol Use: Implications for Practice

Law enforcement officers are often reported to frequently abuse alcohol due to occupational stress. However, few studies have examined alcohol use among U.S. police officers. This study investigated the prevalence of alcohol use and the relation between alcohol use and amount of subjective work-related traumatic distress, work-related but nontraumatic stress, personal relationship stress, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, depression, and age among law enforcement officers (N = 193) working in a midwestern state. Multiple regression analyses showed that greater subjective posttraumatic distress and PTSD avoidance symptoms were the most significant predictors of greater alcohol use among officers. Implications for practice are discussed.

Correlates of career traumatization and symptomatology among active-duty police officers

This study investigated the relation between posttraumatic distress symptoms, relational and spiritual health, and different types of potentially traumatic incidents common among active-duty police officers (N = 183). Multiple regression analyses showed that greater hyperarousal trauma symptoms were predicted by less effort toward personal relationships and more on-duty assaults resulting in serious injury. Greater avoidance trauma symptoms were predicted by less effort put toward personal relationships and more on-duty assaults resulting in serious injury. Heightened intrusion trauma symptoms were correlated with more on-duty assaults resulting in serious injury. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Walk in Balance: Training Crisis Intervention Team Police Officers as Compassionate Warriors

Crisis Intervention Teams (CIT) were developed to enable law enforcement officers to effectively and compassionately respond to calls involving people experiencing psychiatric distress. Mental health professionals responsible for training CIT officers are in a unique position to promote the compassionate treatment of those experiencing psychiatric distress as well as the well-being of the police officers themselves. Fostering spiritual connections and a compassionate-warrior mindset may enhance the training of CIT officers. This article includes descriptions of creative interventions including the use of historical compassionate-warrior comparisons, fictitious stories, and spiritual symbols. These techniques are based on warrior codes of groups such as samurai warriors, martial artists such as Shaolin Kung Fu, medieval knights, Native Americans, and the U.S. military.

Critical Incident History Questionnaire Replication: Frequency and Severity of Trauma Exposure Among Officers From Small and Midsize Police Agencies

Frequency and severity of trauma exposure are thought to influence posttraumatic reactions. Weiss et al.s Critical Incident History Questionnaire (CIHQ; 2010) measures these variables among law enforcement officers; they reported findings using a sample of officers from large urban departments. We noted the need for replication studies utilizing samples from smaller and rural police agencies. The purpose of this study was to replicate the CIHQ findings from Weiss et al. using a sample (N = 193) of officers from small and midsize police departments and officers whose duties include policing rural and isolated jurisdictions. Frequency and severity findings were similar to those reported by Weiss et al. (). Regarding frequency, the present study found the critical incident exposure mean score was 188.5, compared to 168.5 from Weiss et al. (). Making a mistake that kills or injures a colleague had the highest mean nomothetic severity rating in both studies. Among the various variables examined in this study, PTSD symptoms demonstrated the strongest association with the exposure indices, based on Spearman rank correlations (r = .26-.46).

Spirituality and health outcomes among police officers: empirical evidence supporting a paradigm shift

Abstract The negative impact of traumatic and other work-related stressors on the health of police officers is well-documented. Spiritual development is also commonly mentioned in the professional literature as an effective means of protecting officers from the ill-effects of policing, reportedly resulting in improved health and wellness outcomes. However, few empirical studies have been conducted to support claims regarding spirituality and police officer health. The present study investigated what types of spiritual practices police officers used, the relationships between spiritual effort and spiritual growth regarding various psychological and stress-related symptomatology, and whether differences in psychological and health outcomes existed between police officers engaging or not engaging in spiritual practice (N = 193). With one exception, the results do not support the notion that enhanced spirituality is associated with lower illness symptoms or perceived stress. Rather, opposing findings were demonstrated involving positive associations between spiritual growth and distress. Spiritual effort, however, was inversely associated with alcohol use, a behavioral-based coping mechanism. Implications of these findings are discussed, and suggestions for reconceptualizing police health and spiritual practices are introduced.

Relationships Among Traumatic Experiences, PTSD, and Posttraumatic Growth for Police Officers: A Path Analysis.

Objective: Law enforcement officers tend to be exposed to a high frequency of potentially traumatic incidents. A dichotomous distinction among these events involves the witnessing of threat or harm to others and the experiencing of threat or harm directly to oneself. Past research suggests that different types of trauma exposure produce varying levels of negative posttraumatic responses including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and positive outcomes such as posttraumatic growth (PTG). With the goal of better assisting officers experiencing posttraumatic stress, enhanced knowledge regarding this psychological response to the development of PTG is necessary. Method: The purpose of this study was to test a proposed model involving a pathway from type of trauma exposure to PTG that is mediated by PTSD symptoms among law enforcement officers (N = 193). Differences among cognitive PTG and behavioral PTG as our dependent variables, with age, marital status, and relationship stress as control variables, were assessed. Results: Findings indicate that events involving threat to self are more closely related to PTG, via an indirect pathway through PTSD symptoms. Additionally, personal relationship stress was directly associated with PTSD symptoms and behavioral PTG, but not cognitive PTG. Conclusion: Overall, the results of this study provide initial evidence that trauma exposure type (i.e., direct vs. indirect) plays a significant role in the level of PTG. Lastly, the results allow for the possibility of positive changes in behaviors facilitated by cognitive avoidance, in contrast to the common notion that deliberate cognitive engagement is required for growth to occur.

Trauma-Related Sleep Problems and Associated Health Outcomes in Police Officers: A Path Analysis:

Police officers are frequently exposed to two different types of potentially traumatic events: one dealing with physical threats to self and the other involving the witnessing of harm to others. These different types of traumatic experiences are thought to produce various posttraumatic reactions. Furthermore, sleep problems are also reported as a hallmark of posttraumatic stress disorder. There is evidence, however, that sleep problems may mediate the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and health outcomes, especially physical health and depression. Previous research has shown this to be the case among officers from large urban agencies. The purpose of the present study was to test a model involving a pathway from trauma type and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms to physical health and depression that is mediated by sleep quality in officers ( N = 193) using data from small- to mid-size police agencies. Results revealed that sleep problems served as a mediator between posttraumatic stress disorder hyperarousal and avoidance symptoms and health outcomes, that the trauma types are related to different posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and that complicated relationships exist between the study variables. In addition, the results indicated that approximately 25% of our sample displayed probable partial posttraumatic stress disorder or probable full posttraumatic stress disorder, causing substantial functional impairment. Suggestions for improving officer health and performance in the field are provided. Specifically, it appears that interventions designed to address posttraumatic stress disorder hyperarousal symptoms related to personal life threat and the posttraumatic stress disorder avoidance symptoms related to the witnessing of human suffering may maximize officer sleep quality and ultimately overall wellness. In particular, mindfulness-based interventions are well suited for addressing these symptom clusters.

Posttraumatic Growth in Relation to the Frequency and Severity of Traumatic Experiences Among Police Officers in Small to Midsize Departments

The Critical Incident History Questionnaire (CIHQ) measures, through multiple measurement methods, the severity and frequency of traumatic events experienced by law enforcement officers. We, however, found no studies utilizing the CIHQ to examine posttraumatic growth (PTG) as measured by the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. The purpose of this brief report was to assess the strength and direction of the relationships between PTG with trauma frequency, trauma severity, and health variables, including subjective traumatic stress, relationship stress, nontraumatic work stress, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, depression, and alcohol use among law enforcement officers (N = 193) from small and midsize agencies. In addition, we sought to explore differences between cognitive and behavioral PTG. Based on results from bivariate and multivariate analyses, we found that an idiosyncratic view of trauma severity shaped by personal experience demonstrated the strongest relationship with PTG among the frequency and severity variables and that increased PTG was not associated with reduced psychological distress. Alcohol use, a variable that is assessed primarily through behaviors compared with cognitions, was not significantly associated with PTG. Overall, the findings of this study demonstrate the importance for future research to consider both the frequency and severity of trauma exposure in the development of PTG and its impact on health outcomes.