Brian A. Iwata

Toward a functional analysis of self-injury

This study describes the use of an operant methodology to assess functional relationships between self-injury and specific environmental events. The self-injurious behaviors of nine developmentally disabled subjects were observed during periods of brief, repeated exposure to a series of analogue conditions. Each condition differed along one or more of the following dimensions: (1) play materials (present vs absent), (2) experimenter demands (high vs low), and (3) social attention (absent vs noncontingent vs contingent). Results showed a great deal of both between and within-subject variability. However, in six of the nine subjects, higher levels of self-injury were consistently associated with a specific stimulus condition, suggesting that within-subject variability was a function of distinct features of the social and/or physical environment. These data are discussed in light of previously suggested hypotheses for the motivation of self-injury, with particular emphasis on their implications for the selection of suitable treatments.

THIRTY YEARS OF RESEARCH ON THE FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

Hanley, Iwata, and McCord (2003) reviewed studies published through 2000 on the functional analysis (FA) of problem behavior. We update that review for 2001 through 2012, including 158 more recent studies that reported data from 445 FAs. Combined with data obtained from Hanley et al., 435 FA studies, with line graphs for 981 FAs, have been published since 1961. We comment on recent trends in FA research and introduce the studies in the 2013 special issue of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis.

Reliability analysis of the motivation assessment scale: A failure to replicate

The Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) has been proposed as an efficient questionnaire for identifying the source of reinforcement for an individuals self-injurious behavior (SIB). A previous reliability analysis of the MAS (Durand & Crimmins, 1988) reported interrater correlation coefficients ranging from .66 to .92, based on a comparison of responses provided by classroom teachers. In this study, the reliability of the MAS was reexamined with two independent groups of developmentally disabled individuals who exhibited SIB (N = 55). For the institutional sample (n = 39), the MAS was given to two staff members (a supervisor and therapy aide) who work with the individual daily. For the school sample (n = 16), the MAS was given to the teacher and teachers aide who taught the student. The correlational analyses completed by Durand and Crimmins (1988) were repeated; in addition, a more precise analysis of interrater reliability was calculated based on the actual number of scoring agreements between the two raters. Results showed that only 16 of the 55 raters agreed on the category of reinforcement maintaining their clients or students SIB, that only 15% of the correlation coefficients obtained were above .80, and that none of the reliability scores based on percent agreement between raters was above 80%.

Clinical application of functional analysis methodology.

Functional analysis (FA) methodology is a well-established standard for assessment in applied behavior analysis research. Although used less commonly in clinical (nonresearch) application, the basic components of an FA can be adapted easily in many situations to facilitate the treatment of problem behavior. This article describes practical aspects of FA methodology and suggests ways that it can be incorporated into routine clinical work.

Differential reinforcement as treatment for behavior disorders: Procedural and functional variations

For many years, differential reinforcement has been a prevalent and preferred treatment procedure for the reduction of behavior disorders. This paper reviews the procedural variations of differential reinforcement and discusses their functional properties. It is proposed that such procedures are more likely to be successful if behavioral function is a primary consideration in prescribing treatments; furthermore, limited success noted in previous research may be due to the arbitrary relationship that often exists between reinforcers and target behaviors when behavioral function is unknown. Despite the promise of a function-based approach to differential reinforcement, several current limitations exist in the identification and manipulation of relevant variables. Thus, further research is required to elucidate the relationship between aberrant behaviors and the variables responsible for maintaining them; otherwise, successful treatment cannot be expected. Several areas for future research are discussed conceptually as extensions of current and past experimentation.

CLASSROOM APPLICATION OF A TRIAL‐BASED FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

We evaluated a trial-based approach to conducting functional analyses in classroom settings. Ten students referred for problem behavior were exposed to a series of assessment trials, which were interspersed among classroom activities throughout the day. Results of these trial-based functional analyses were compared to those of more traditional functional analyses. Outcomes of both assessments showed correspondence in 6 of the 10 cases and partial correspondence in a 7th case. Results of the standard functional analysis suggested reasons for obtained differences in 2 cases of noncorrespondence, which were verified when portions of the trial-based functional analyses were modified and repeated. These results indicate that a trial-based functional analysis may be a viable assessment method when resources needed to conduct a standard functional analysis are unavailable. Implications for classroom-based assessment methodologies and future directions for research are discussed.

Behavioral treatment of food refusal and selectivity in developmentally disabled children

Abstract Dietary inadequacies involving the consumption of insufficient quantities or types of foods are prevalent among handicapped individuals and may result in excessive weight loss, malnutrition, retardation in growth, and lethargy. Techniques currently used to alleviate the problem may pose additional health risks, do not usually promote appropriate feeding behavior, or have not undergone adequate empirical evaluation. In this study, the highly selective food refusal of two developmentally disabled children was reduced using procedures consisting of delivery of preferred foods as reinforcers, extinction and fading. Results obtained with a multiple baseline design showed increased consumption of all selected foods, as well as decreased food expulsion for both children. These findings indicate that the intervention represented an effective means of treating selective food refusal, and suggest that behavioral methodology and principles may be useful tools in both the assessment and treatment of a variety of eating related disorders.

The Development and Adoption of Controversial Default Technologies

Default technologies evolve from failure. Within the realm of human behavior, technologies based on the use of aversive contingencies can be conceptualized as default technologies because they come into play when natural contingencies or positive reinforcement fail to produce a desired behavioral outcome. Historical as well as contemporary events suggest that it is a mistake for behavior analysts to advocate for the adoption of aversive technologies. We must, however, continue to play a leading role in the development of such technologies so that they will be used in an appropriate manner. Furthermore, the eventual elimination of aversive technologies will be possible only through continued, careful, and experimental analysis of the contexts of failure in which they are born.

Treatment Classification and Selection Based on Behavioral Function

Results from more than 25 years of research on behavioral approaches to the treatment of self-injury, aggression, and related disorders in developmentally disabled individuals indicate that these problems are learned behaviors and can be reduced significantly using interventions derived from operant conditioning principles. A consistent finding has been that behavior disorders are responsive to treatment across an extremely wide range of procedural variation. Because so many options are available in a given clinical situation, issues related to treatment selection have become increasingly important in recent years, and a number of decision-making models have been proposed. Yet the question of how best to proceed when attempting to reduce a serious behavior problem has been difficult to answer and is often the subject of controversy. Some treatments are viewed as more effective, intrusive, or costly than others, and there has been disagreement over the relative “ranking” of treatments based on these factors. The ultimate criteria used in making treatment decisions should take into account scientific, ethical, and economic factors, as well as consumer preference (e.g., see the extensive discussion of these factors in Repp & Singh, 1990). Much of the current controversy, however, arises from more basic misconceptions about the characteristics of treatment procedures and the behavior disorders they are designed to eliminate, resulting in either arbitrary or erroneous classification.

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS SCREENING FOR PROBLEM BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY AUTOMATIC REINFORCEMENT

A common finding in previous research is that problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement continues to occur in the alone condition of a functional analysis (FA), whereas behavior maintained by social reinforcement typically is extinguished. Thus, the alone condition may represent an efficient screening procedure when maintenance by automatic reinforcement is suspected. We conducted a series of 5-min alone (or no-interaction) probes for 30 cases of problem behavior and compared initial predictions of maintenance or extinction to outcomes obtained in subsequent FAs. Results indicated that data from the screening procedure accurately predicted that problem behavior was maintained by automatic reinforcement in 21 of 22 cases and by social reinforcement in 7 of 8 cases. Thus, results of the screening accurately predicted the function of problem behavior (social vs. automatic reinforcement) in 28 of 30 cases.