Brian A. Jonah

SENSATION SEEKING AND RISKY DRIVING : A REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS OF THE LITERATURE

The relationship between sensation seeking and risky behaviour has been observed since the 1970s. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, road safety researchers have examined the relationship between sensation seeking and risky driving (e.g. driving while impaired, speeding, following too closely), as well as its consequences (e.g. collisions, violations). There is also growing evidence that sensation seeking may also moderate the manner in which drivers respond to other factors such as alcohol impairment and perceived risk. This paper reviews and synthesizes the literature on sensation seeking as a direct influencer of risky driving and its consequences and as a moderator of the influence of other factors. The vast majority of the 40 studies reviewed showed positive relationships between sensation seeking (SS) and risky driving, with correlations in the 0.30-0.40 range, depending on gender and the measure of risky driving and SS employed. Of those studies that have looked at the subscales of Zuckermans Sensation Seeking Scale, Thrill and Adventure Seeking appears to have the strongest relationship to risky driving. The biological bases of SS is discussed as are the implications for collision prevention measures.

Accident risk and risk-taking behaviour among young drivers.

This paper reviews the evidence relevant to the hypotheses that young (16-25) drivers are at greater risk of being involved in a casualty accident than older drivers and this greater risk is primarily a function of their propensity to take risks while driving. The first hypothesis is clearly supported by epidemiological research even when controlling for differences in the quantity and quality of road travel and driving experience. The second hypothesis is also supported by observational and self-report surveys of driving behaviour. Some of the research and theory bearing on risk perception and risk utility, possible mediators of risk-taking, is also reviewed.

Sensation seeking, risky driving and behavioral adaptation.

A study on the relationship between sensation seeking (SS) and risky driving, aggressive driving and behavioral adaptation is reported on. College students completed a questionnaire concerning their driving behavior and level of sensation seeking. Results indicated that high SSs were significantly more likely than low SSs to speed, not wear belts, drink frequently, drive after drinking, perceive a low risk of detection for impaired driving, and perceive that they could drink more beer before being impaired. High SSs were also more likely to report aggressive driving habits. High SSs were significantly more likely than low SSs to say that they would drive faster on highways and on wet roads and drive after drinking, if operating a vehicle equipped with anti-lock brakes. The results are consistent with previous research.

The effects of introducing or lowering legal per se blood alcohol limits for driving: an international review

In this review evidence on the impact of introducing or lowering legal blood alcohol limits on traffic safety measures is examined. There is substantial variability in the types and rigour of methods used to evaluate these legislative measures, and thus not surprisingly there is variability in the results observed. In most but not all cases where an evaluation of an introduced or lowered legal limit has been conducted, some beneficial effect on traffic safety measures has been reported. These effects are in some cases relatively small, and in other cases may be temporary. In some jurisdictions, lasting reductions in collision rates have been reported. Available evidence suggests that where beneficial effects are observed they are due to general deterrence, and not restricted only to drivers at blood alcohol concentrations (BAC) specifically affected by the legal change.

Field dependence, sensation seeking and driving behaviour

The present study attempted to relate field dependence-independence (FDI) to accident involvement and perceived causes of accidents as well as to trace these relationships to the sensation-seeking (SS) tendency of the field-dependent driver. In addition, the concomittant effects of internal/external locus of control (IE) were studied. Subjects (N=285) filled out a questionnaire assessing their level of FDI, SS, IE, number of accidents, as well as the attributed importance of various possible causes of their last accident. The obtained results show no relationship between FDI and SS and either the number of accidents or the importance attributed to various causes of accidents. Significant relationships were, however, obtained between FDI and SS and seat-belt use and SS and speed on the highway.

Measuring the relative risk of pedestrian accidents

The present paper describes research which was conducted to develop a methodology for measuring the relative risk of pedestrian accidents. Accident and exposure data were analyzed separately and then in combination to produce relative risks. The accident information (N = 472) extracted from police accident report forms revealed that dart-out and intersection dash accidents were the most frequent types of accidents with children more involved in the former and adults more involved in the latter. The exposure survey (N = 956) of people aged three years and over indicated that adolescents (13-17) had the highest level of pedestrian activity in terms of number of trips, distance, duration and number of street crossings. The elderly (65 +) and children 8-12 had the lowest levels of activity. Qualitative analysis of pedestrian activity revealed that children (3-12) made more trips during daylight hours, were more often accompanied by others on suburban side streets and crossed streets more often at uncontrolled locations than adults. Examination of relative risk ratios revealed that children (3-12) and the elderly had the highest levels of accident risk but only when distance travelled, duration and number of streets crossed were used as the exposure index. The results demonstrated that exposure data is critical in defining target groups for pedestrian safety programs.

EFFECTS OF A SELECTIVE TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT PROGRAM ON SEAT BELT USAGE

A study was conducted to assess the effect of a Selective Traffic Enforcement Program on seat belt usage. The program consisted of increased enforcement of the seat belt legislation and publication of this enforcement. It was predicted that during the program, there would be increases in seat belt usage and subjective probability of being apprehended in the experimental city, whereas there would be no changes in these variables in the control city. Seat belt usage (N equals 23,910) and telephone (N equals 1,738) surveys were conducted before, during, 1 month after, and 6 months after the program in both cities. In the experimental city observed belt usage increased from 58% to 80% during the program, dropping to 70% 6 months after the program. Reported belt use and subjective probability also increased during the program. In the control city an increase in subjective probability was observed, but there was no increase in belt usage noted. The role of subjective probability as a mediator of the effect of enforcement on driver behavior is discussed.

Are formally trained motorcyclists safer

The present study was conducted to determine whether graduates of the Motorcycle Training Program (MTP) were less likely to have had an accident or committed a traffic violation while riding a motorcycle compared to informally trained (IT) motorcyclists. Since motorcyclists could not be randomly assigned to the training program, multivariate analyses were used to impose statistical control on the data. Samples of MTP graduates (N = 811) and IT motorcyclists (N = 1080) were interviewed about their riding experiences during the past four years including accidents and violations. Univariate analyses indicated that the MTP graduates were less likely than IT riders to have had accidents and violations during the criterion period. However, the graduates and IT riders differed in sex, age, time licensed, distance travelled, education and riding after drinking, all characteristics significantly related to accident and violation likelihood. Multivariate analyses, controlling for the differences in these characteristics, revealed that the MTP graduates and IT riders did not differ in accident likelihood but the MTP graduates were significantly less likely to have committed a traffic violation than the IT riders. Although the lower incidence of traffic violations among graduates could be attributed to the training program, it is possible that the graduates sought formal training because they were safety conscious and this attitude also influenced their riding behaviour.

Predicting accident involvement with the motorcycle operator skill test

The present study was conducted to assess the predictive validity of the Motorcycle Operator Skill Test (MOST) developed by McPherson and McKnight (1976). It was anticipated that among licensed motorcyclists those scoring higher on this off-road skill test would be less likely to become involved in an accident than motorcyclists scoring lower. A sample of motorcycle operator licence applicants was administered the MOST in addition to the regular licensing test. These motorcyclists were contacted about a year later and queried about their riding experiences including motorcycle accidents. Driver records were also searched for six months after the motorcyclist was licensed. Although bivariate analyses indicated that high scorers on the MOST were more likely to have had an accident than low scorers, multivariate analyses revealed no effect of test performance on subsequent accident involvement. However, accident likelihood was found to decrease as a function of age and increase as a function of vehicle distance travelled (i.e. exposure to risk).

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE CANADIAN MANDATORY SEAT BELT USE LAWS

The impact of four provincial mandatory seat belt use laws passed in 1976 and 1977 on seat belt use and on motor vehicle occupant casualties is examined. Subsequent to the passage of the laws, belt use typically increased from 20 to the 70% level dropping to around 50% over the next several years. Ontario exhibited a clear drop in the fatality and injury rates in the years following the introduction of the law. Quebec experienced little reduction in casualties. The changes in casualties for British Columbia and Saskatchewan were mixed with the former showing a drop only in the fatality rate subsequent to the seat belt law, while the latter experienced a reduction only in the injury rate. The provinces without seat belt use laws also enjoyed some reductions in occupant casualty rates. The changes in occupant casualties in the legislated provinces were also examined relative to the changes in non-occupant casualties and relative to the unlegislated provinces. It was concluded that three provinces experienced some reductions as a result of legislation but not as much as anticipated. It is speculated that the impact of the seat belt use laws fell short of expectations because it was mainly the safe drivers who buckled up in response to the laws.