Brian C. Lemaux

The DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey: Design, Observations, Data Reduction, and Redshifts

We describe the design and data analysis of the DEEP2 Galaxy Redshift Survey, the densest and largest high-precision redshift survey of galaxies at z ~ 1 completed to date. The survey was designed to conduct a comprehensive census of massive galaxies, their properties, environments, and large-scale structure down to absolute magnitude M_B = −20 at z ~ 1 via ~90 nights of observation on the Keck telescope. The survey covers an area of 2.8 deg^2 divided into four separate fields observed to a limiting apparent magnitude of R_(AB) = 24.1. Objects with z ≾0.7 are readily identifiable using BRI photometry and rejected in three of the four DEEP2 fields, allowing galaxies with z > 0.7 to be targeted ~2.5 times more efficiently than in a purely magnitude-limited sample. Approximately 60% of eligible targets are chosen for spectroscopy, yielding nearly 53,000 spectra and more than 38,000 reliable redshift measurements. Most of the targets that fail to yield secure redshifts are blue objects that lie beyond z ~ 1.45, where the [O ii] 3727 A doublet lies in the infrared. The DEIMOS 1200 line mm^(−1) grating used for the survey delivers high spectral resolution (R ~ 6000), accurate and secure redshifts, and unique internal kinematic information. Extensive ancillary data are available in the DEEP2 fields, particularly in the Extended Groth Strip, which has evolved into one of the richest multiwavelength regions on the sky. This paper is intended as a handbook for users of the DEEP2 Data Release 4, which includes all DEEP2 spectra and redshifts, as well as for the DEEP2 DEIMOS data reduction pipelines. Extensive details are provided on object selection, mask design, biases in target selection and redshift measurements, the spec2d two-dimensional data-reduction pipeline, the spec1d automated redshift pipeline, and the zspec visual redshift verification process, along with examples of instrumental signatures or other artifacts that in some cases remain after data reduction. Redshift errors and catastrophic failure rates are assessed through more than 2000 objects with duplicate observations. Sky subtraction is essentially photon-limited even under bright OH sky lines; we describe the strategies that permitted this, based on high image stability, accurate wavelength solutions, and powerful B-spline modeling methods. We also investigate the impact of targets that appear to be single objects in ground-based targeting imaging but prove to be composite in Hubble Space Telescope data; they constitute several percent of targets at z ~ 1, approaching ~5%–10% at z > 1.5. Summary data are given that demonstrate the superiority of DEEP2 over other deep high-precision redshift surveys at z ~ 1 in terms of redshift accuracy, sample number density, and amount of spectral information. We also provide an overview of the scientific highlights of the DEEP2 survey thus far.

DISCOVERY OF A DISSOCIATIVE GALAXY CLUSTER MERGER WITH LARGE PHYSICAL SEPARATION

We present DLSCL J0916.2+2951 (z = 0.53), a newly discovered major cluster merger in which the collisional cluster gas has become dissociated from the collisionless galaxies and dark matter (DM). We identified the cluster using optical and weak-lensing observations as part of the Deep Lens Survey. Our follow-up observations with Keck, Subaru, Hubble Space Telescope, and Chandra show that the cluster is a dissociative merger and constrain the DM self-interaction cross-section σDM m –1 DM 7 cm2 g–1. The system is observed at least 0.7 ± 0.2 Gyr since first pass-through, thus providing a picture of cluster mergers 2-5 times further progressed than similar systems observed to date. This improved temporal leverage has implications for our understanding of merging clusters and their impact on galaxy evolution.

THE ORIGIN OF [O II] IN POST-STARBURST AND RED-SEQUENCE GALAXIES IN HIGH-REDSHIFT CLUSTERS

We present the first results from a near-IR spectroscopic campaign of the Cl1604 supercluster at z ~ 0.9 and the cluster RX J1821.6+6827 at z ~ 0.82 to investigate the nature of [O II] λ3727 emission in cluster galaxies at high redshift. Of the 401 members in Cl1604 and RX J1821+6827 confirmed using the Keck II/DEIMOS spectrograph, 131 galaxies have detectable [O II] emission with no other signs of current star formation activity, as well as strong absorption features indicative of a well-established older stellar population. The combination of these features suggests that the primary source of [O II] emission in these galaxies is not a result of star formation processes, but rather due to the presence of a low-ionization nuclear emission-line region (LINER) or Seyfert component. Using the NIRSPEC spectrograph on the Keck II 10 m telescope, 19 such galaxies were targeted, as well as 6 additional [O II]-emitting cluster members that exhibited signs of ongoing star formation activity. Nearly half (~47%) of the 19 [O II]-emitting, absorption-line-dominated galaxies exhibit [O II] to Hα equivalent width (EW) ratios higher than unity, the typical observed value for star-forming galaxies, with an EW distribution similar to that observed for LINERs at low redshift. A majority (~68%) of these 19 galaxies are classified as LINER/Seyfert based primarily on the emission-line ratio of [N II] λ6584 and Hα. The fraction of LINER/Seyferts increases to ~85% for red [O II]-emitting, absorption-line-dominated galaxies. The LINER/Seyfert galaxies in our Cl1604 sample exhibit average L([O II])/L(Hα) ratios that are significantly higher than that observed in populations of star-forming galaxies, suggesting that [O II] is a poor indicator of star formation in a significant fraction of high-redshift cluster members. From the prevalence of [O II]-emitting, absorption-line-dominated galaxies in both systems and the fraction of such galaxies that are classified as LINER/Seyfert, we estimate that at least ~20% of galaxies in high-redshift clusters with M_* > 10^(10)-10^(10.5) M_⊙ contain a LINER/Seyfert component that can be revealed with line ratios. We also investigate the effect such a population has on the global star formation rate of cluster galaxies and the post-starburst fraction, concluding that LINER/Seyferts must be accounted for if these quantities are to be physically meaningful.

The Complex Structure of the Cl 1604 Supercluster at z ~ 0.9

The Cl 1604 supercluster at z = 0.9 is one of a small handful of such structures discovered in the high-redshift universe and is the first target observed as part of the Observations of Redshift Evolution in Large Scale Environments (ORELSE) survey. To date, Cl 1604 is the largest structure mapped at z ~ 1, with the most constituent clusters and the largest number of spectroscopically confirmed member galaxies. In this paper we present the results of a spectroscopic campaign to create a three-dimensional map of Cl 1604 and to understand the contamination by foreground and background large-scale structures. Combining new Deep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph observations with previous data yields high-quality redshifts for 1138 extragalactic objects in a ~0.08 deg^2 region, 413 of which are supercluster members. We examine the complex three-dimensional structure of Cl 1604, providing velocity dispersions for eight of the member clusters and groups. Our extensive spectroscopic data set is used to examine potential biases in cluster velocity dispersion measurements in the presence of overlapping structures and filaments. We also discuss other structures found along the line of sight, including a filament at z = 0.6 and two serendipitously discovered groups at z ~ 1.2.

The Assembly of the Red Sequence at z ~ 1: The Color and Spectral Properties of Galaxies in the Cl1604 Supercluster

We investigate the properties of the 525 spectroscopically confirmed members of the Cl1604 supercluster at z ~ 0.9 as part of the Observations of Redshift Evolution in Large Scale Environments survey. In particular, we focus on the photometric, stellar mass, morphological, and spectral properties of the 305 member galaxies of the eight clusters and groups that comprise the Cl1604 supercluster. Using an extensive Keck Low-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (LRIS)/DEep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph (DEIMOS) spectroscopic database in conjunction with ten-band ground-based, Spitzer, and Hubble Space Telescope imaging, we investigate the buildup of the red sequence in groups and clusters at high redshift. Nearly all of the brightest and most massive red-sequence galaxies present in the supercluster environment are found to lie within the bounds of the cluster and group systems, with a surprisingly large number of such galaxies present in low-mass group systems. Despite the prevalence of these red-sequence galaxies, we find that the average cluster galaxy has a spectrum indicative of a star-forming galaxy, with a star formation rate between those of z ~ 1 field galaxies and moderate-redshift cluster galaxies. The average group galaxy is even more active, exhibiting spectral properties indicative of a starburst. The presence of massive, red galaxies and the high fraction of starbursting galaxies present in the group environment suggest that significant processing is occurring in group environments at z ~ 1 and earlier. There is a deficit of low-luminosity red-sequence galaxies in all Cl1604 clusters and groups, suggesting that such galaxies transition to the red sequence at later times. Extremely massive (~10^(12)M_☉) red-sequence galaxies routinely observed in rich clusters at z ~ 0 are also absent from the Cl1604 clusters and groups. We suggest that such galaxies form at later times through merging processes. There are significant populations of transition galaxies at intermediate stellar masses (log(M_*)=10.25-10.75) present in the group and cluster environments, suggesting that this range is important for the buildup of the red-sequence mass function at z ~ 1. Through a comparison of the transitional populations present in the Cl1604 cluster and group systems, we find evidence that massive blue-cloud galaxies are quenched earliest in the most dynamically relaxed systems and at progressively later times in dynamically unrelaxed systems.

CHANDRA OBSERVATIONS OF THE CL1604 SUPERCLUSTER AT z = 0.9: EVIDENCE FOR AN OVERDENSITY OF ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI

We present the results of Chandra observations of the Cl1604 supercluster at z ~ 0.9. The system is the largest structure mapped at redshifts approaching unity, containing at least eight spectroscopically confirmed galaxy clusters and groups. Using two 50 ks ACIS-I pointings we examine both the X-ray point-source population and the diffuse emission from individual clusters in the system. Over an area encompassing the entire supercluster (~0.154 deg2), we find a 2.5σ excess of point sources detected in the hard band (2-10 keV) relative to the number of sources found in blank fields observed by Chandra. No such excess is observed in the soft band (0.5-2 keV). The hard-band source density is 1.47 times greater than that of a blank field, in agreement with the previously reported correlation between overdensity amplitude and cluster redshift. Using a maximum likelihood technique, we have matched 112 of the 161 detected X-ray point sources to optical counterparts and found 15 sources that are associated with the supercluster. All 15 sources have rest-frame luminosities consistent with emission from active galactic nuclei (AGNs). We find that the supercluster AGNs largely avoid the densest regions of the system and are instead distributed on the outskirts of massive clusters or within poorer clusters and groups. We have also detected diffuse emission from two of the eight clusters and groups in the system, clusters Cl1604 + 4304 and Cl1604 + 4314. The systems have bolometric luminosities of 1.43 × 10^44 and 8.20 × 10^43 h70^–2 erg s^–1 and gas temperatures of 3.50+1.82 –1.08 and 1.64+0.65 –0.45 keV, respectively. Using updated velocity dispersions, we compare the properties of these systems with the cluster scaling relations followed by other X-rays and optically selected galaxy clusters at high redshift.

Obscured Starburst Activity in High-redshift Clusters and Groups

Using Spitzer-Multiband Imaging Photometer 24 μm imaging and extensive Keck spectroscopy, we examine the nature of the obscured star-forming population in three clusters and three groups at z ~ 0.9. These six systems are the primary components of the Cl1604 supercluster, the largest structure imaged by Spitzer at redshifts approaching unity. We find that the average density of 24 μm detected galaxies within the Cl1604 clusters is nearly twice that of the surrounding field and that this overdensity scales with the clusters dynamical state. The 24 μm bright members often appear optically unremarkable and exhibit only moderate [O II] line emission due to severe obscuration. Their spatial distribution suggests that they are an infalling population, but an examination of their spectral properties, morphologies, and optical colors indicates that they are not simply analogs of the field population that have yet to be quenched. Using stacked composite spectra, we find that the 24 μm detected cluster and group galaxies exhibit elevated levels of Balmer absorption compared with galaxies undergoing normal, continuous star formation. A similar excess is not observed in field galaxies with equivalent infrared luminosities, indicating a greater fraction of the detected cluster and group members have experienced a burst of star formation in the recent past compared to their counterparts in the field. Our results suggest that gas-rich galaxies at high redshift experience a temporary increase in their star formation activity as they assemble into denser environments. Using Hubble Space Telescope Advanced Camera for Surveys imaging, we find that disturbed morphologies are common among the 24 μm detected cluster and group members and become more prevalent in regions of higher galaxy density. We conclude that mergers are the dominant triggering mechanism responsible for the enhanced star formation found in the Cl1604 groups, while a mix of harassment and mergers are likely driving the activity of the cluster galaxies.

SERENDIPITOUS DISCOVERY OF AN OVERDENSITY OF Lyα EMITTERS AT z ∼ 4.8 IN THE CL1604 SUPERCLUSTER FIELD

We present results of a spectroscopic search for Lyα emitters (LAEs) in the Cl1604 supercluster field using the extensive spectroscopic Keck/DEep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph database taken as part of the Observations of Redshift Evolution in Large-Scale Environments survey. A total of 12 slitmasks were observed and inspected in the Cl1604 field, spanning a survey volume of 1.365 × 10^4 comoving Mpc^3. We find a total of 17 high-redshift (4.39 ≤ z ≤ 5.67) LAE candidates down to a limiting flux of 1.9 × 10^(–18) erg s^(–1) cm^(–2) (L(Lyα) = 4.6 × 10^(41) erg s^(–1) or ~0.1 L _* at z ~ 5), 13 of which we classify as high quality. The resulting LAE number density is nearly double that of LAEs found in the Subaru deep field at z ~ 4.9 and nearly an order of magnitude higher than in other surveys of LAEs at similar redshifts, an excess that is essentially independent of LAE luminosity. We also report on the discovery of two possible LAE group structures at z ~ 4.4 and z ~ 4.8 and investigate the effects of cosmic variance of LAEs on our results. Fitting a simple truncated single Gaussian model to a composite spectrum of the 13 high-quality LAE candidates, we find a best-fit stellar velocity dispersion of 136 km s^(–1). Additionally, we see modest evidence of a second peak in the composite spectrum, possibly caused by galactic outflows, offset from the main velocity centroid of the LAE population by ~440 km s^(–1) as well as evidence for a nontrivial Lyα escape fraction. We find an average star formation rate density (SFRD) of ~5 × 10^(–3) M_☉ yr^(–1) Mpc^(–3) with moderate evidence for negative evolution in the SFRD from z ~ 4.6 to z ~ 5.7. By simulating the statistical flux loss due to our observational setup, we measure a best-fit luminosity function characterized by Φ_* L_* = 2.2^(+3.9)_(–1.3) × 10^(39) erg s^(–1) Mpc^(–3) for α = –1.6, generally consistent with measurements from other surveys at similar epochs. Finally, we investigate any possible effects from weak or strong gravitational lensing induced by the foreground supercluster, finding that our LAE candidates are minimally affected by lensing processes.

SPITZERULTRA FAINT SURVEY PROGRAM (SURFS UP). II. IRAC-DETECTED LYMAN-BREAK GALAXIES AT 6 ≲z≲ 10 BEHIND STRONG-LENSING CLUSTERS

We study the stellar population properties of the IRAC-detected

The DEEP2 Redshift Survey: Lyα Emitters in the Spectroscopic Database*

6 \lesssim z \lesssim 10