Brian D. Till

The Match-Up Hypothesis: Physical Attractiveness, Expertise, and the Role of Fit on Brand Attitude, Purchase Intent and Brand Beliefs

Abstract Two studies are presented that examine the role of attractiveness and expertise in the “match-up hypothesis.” Much “match-up hypothesis” research has focused on physical attractiveness. Study One examined physical attractiveness as a match-up factor and its impact on brand attitude, purchase intent and key brand beliefs. In a 2 × 2 experiment, endorser attractiveness and product type are manipulated. Results indicated a general “attractiveness effect” on brand attitude and purchase intent but not the match-up predicted in previous literature. Study Two considered expertise as the match-up dimension. The second experiment manipulated product and endorser type. A match-up effect was found as the athlete was most effective as an endorser for the energy bar in increasing brand attitude, but not purchase intent. The variable “fit,” or “belongingness,” was shown to play an important role in match-up effects.

Endorsers in Advertising: The Case of Negative Celebrity Information

The use of celebrity endorsers is a popular executional device, but it is not without risk. The authors report three studies examining how negative information about a celebrity can affect the brand the celebrity endorses. Using an associative network model of memory as a theoretical framework, they considered four moderating variables: the size of the association set for the brand, the size of the association set for the celebrity, the timing of the negative celebrity information, and the strength of the associative link between the brand and the celebrity. In the first two studies, they used a fictitious but realistic celebrity endorser and in the third they used an actual celebrity. Negative information about a celebrity resulted in a decline in attitude toward the endorsed brand only for the fictitious celebrity. That general relationship was moderated in varying degrees by association set size, timing of the negative information, and the strength of the link between brand and celebrity.

Matching products with endorsers: attractiveness versus expertise

The importance of fit between the endorser and the endorsed product has been described as the “match‐up hypothesis”. Much “match‐up hypothesis” research has focused on physical attraction. We present two studies which collectively suggest that, while attractive endorsers do positively affect attitude toward the endorsed brand, expertise is a more important dimension for driving the fit between an endorser and a brand. Study One examines physical attractiveness as a match‐up factor. Results indicate a general “attractiveness effect”, but not a match‐up effect based on attractiveness. Study Two considers expertise as the match‐up dimension. A match‐up effect was found based on expertise.

Co‐branding: brand equity and trial effects

Co‐branding is an increasingly popular technique marketers use in attempting to transfer the positive associations of the partner (constituent) brands to a newly formed co‐brand (composite brand). This research examines the effects of co‐branding on the brand equity of both the co‐branded product and the constituent brands that comprise it, both before and after product trial. It appears that co‐branding is a win/win strategy for both co‐branding partners regardless of whether the original brands are perceived by consumers as having high or low brand equity. Although low equity brands may benefit most from co‐branding, high equity brands are not denigrated even when paired with a low equity partner. Further, positive product trial seems to enhance consumers’ evaluations of co‐branded products, particularly those with a low equity constituent brand. Co‐branding strategies may be effective in exploiting a product performance advantage or in introducing a new product with an unfamiliar brand name.

Using celebrity endorsers effectively: lessons from associative learning

The use of celebrity endorsers in advertising is wide‐spread – as much as 20 percent of all advertising use some type of celebrity endorser. Marketers invest significant dollars in securing the promotional support of well‐known individuals. Associative learning principles are presented as a useful framework for understanding how celebrity endorsers can be used more effectively. Principles such as repetition, overshadowing, blocking, belongingness, CS pre‐exposure, association set size, and extinction are introduced and linked to specific managerial suggestions for improving the use of celebrity endorsers.

Toward effective use of cause‐related marketing alliances

Companies have become increasingly active in developing relationships between their brands and popular causes in such areas as the environment (e.g. nature conservancy) and health issues (e.g. breast cancer awareness crusade). As such alliances become a more important strategic component of the brand’s marketing mix, managers seek direction as to how to generate the most impact with these tie‐ins. This article uses associative learning principles as a framework for understanding how to facilitate building connections between brands and causes so as to increase the value of this highly visible marketing activity. Specific associative learning principles are detailed and applied, improving the use of cause‐related marketing alliances.

RECALL AND PERSUASION: Does Creative Advertising Matter?

Creativity is an important component of advertising. This research examines the potential effectiveness of creative advertising in enhancing recall, brand attitude, and purchase intent. Our basic methodology compares a set of randomly selected award-winning commercials (Communication Arts) with a random sample of control commercials. The commercials were embedded in television programs and subjects for a naturalistic viewing experience. Studies 1 and 2 had aided and unaided brand and execution recall as dependent variables. For Study 3, brand attitude and purchase intent were the dependent variables of interest. Results indicated that creative commercials facilitate unaided recall, but that creativity did not enhance aided recall, purchase intent, or brand and advertisement attitude. The basic advantage of creative advertising in enhancing unaided recall was found to persist over a one-week delay.

The Persistence of Classically Conditioned Brand Attitudes

Abstract The researchers investigated the long-term effects of classically conditioned attitudes toward a brand. In two experiments, subjects were exposed to classical conditioning procedures in which favorable images were paired with a fictitious brand of mouthwash. Study 1, a within-subjects design, examined attitudes of a single subject pool immediately after exposure, after a one-week delay, and after a three-week delay. In study 2, the same methods and procedures were used to condition favorable responses to the test brand, but a between-subjects design was used to control for possible measurement effects. Measurements were taken immediately after exposure to conditioning trials for one group of subjects and three weeks after exposure to the trials for a second group. Results from both studies support the hypothesis that attitudes formulated through classical conditioning are enduring.

Evaluation of search, experience and credence attributes: role of brand name and product trial

Previous researchers have established that brand names are important in determining perceptions of brand quality and attitude towards the product. In this research we investigate the role of brand name in shaping consumers’ evaluation of search, experience, and credence attributes. The findings confirm that, prior to trial, brand name increases consumers’ perception of experience and credence attribute performance evaluations. However, prior to trial, brand name is found not to affect consumers’ perception of search attributes. Trial of the brand is found to reduce (and not eliminate) the advantage branded products have in enhancing consumers’ perception of experience and credence attributes.

Creativity and Memory Effects: Recall, Recognition, and an Exploration of Nontraditional Media

Using a combination of exploratory and traditional approaches, we replicate and extend previous research on creativity and memory effects. The first study examines creativitys effect on advertising recall using two nontraditional media: airport terminal and preshow cinema advertising. Results suggest that differences in how consumers interact with nontraditional media influence the effect of advertising creativity on memory. For cinema advertising, where media consumption is similar to traditional media, creativity enhanced recall. For airport advertising, where media consumption often occurs when consumers are in a distracted state, creativity had no effect. The second study continues this investigation of exposure context and extends previous creativity research by investigating the recognition dependent variable in a forcedexposure context. Recognition is measured at four time-delay intervals: no delay and delays of one-week, three-weeks, and five-weeks. Creative advertising was found to enhance recognition, and this positive effect increased over time.