Brian F. Kuhn

Geological Setting and Age of Australopithecus sediba from Southern Africa

From Australopithecus to Homo Our genus Homo is thought to have evolved a little more than 2 million years ago from the earlier hominid Australopithecus. But there are few fossils that provide detailed information on this transition. Berger et al. (p. 195; see the cover) now describe two partial skeletons, including most of the skull, pelvis, and ankle, of a new species of Australopithecus that are informative. The skeletons were found in a cave in South Africa encased in sediments dated by Dirks et al. (p. 205) to about 1.8 to 1.9 million years ago. The fossils share many derived features with the earliest Homo species, including in its pelvis and smaller teeth, and imply that the transition to Homo was in stages. A new species of Australopithecus, about 1.9 million years old, shows many derived features with Homo, helping to reveal its evolution. We describe the geological, geochronological, geomorphological, and faunal context of the Malapa site and the fossils of Australopithecus sediba. The hominins occur with a macrofauna assemblage that existed in Africa between 2.36 and 1.50 million years ago (Ma). The fossils are encased in water-laid, clastic sediments that were deposited along the lower parts of what is now a deeply eroded cave system, immediately above a flowstone layer with a U-Pb date of 2.026 ± 0.021 Ma. The flowstone has a reversed paleomagnetic signature and the overlying hominin-bearing sediments are of normal polarity, indicating deposition during the 1.95- to 1.78-Ma Olduvai Subchron. The two hominin specimens were buried together in a single debris flow that lithified soon after deposition in a phreatic environment inaccessible to scavengers.

New fossil remains of Homo naledi from the Lesedi Chamber, South Africa

The Rising Star cave system has produced abundant fossil hominin remains within the Dinaledi Chamber, representing a minimum of 15 individuals attributed to Homo naledi. Further exploration led to the discovery of hominin material, now comprising 131 hominin specimens, within a second chamber, the Lesedi Chamber. The Lesedi Chamber is far separated from the Dinaledi Chamber within the Rising Star cave system, and represents a second depositional context for hominin remains. In each of three collection areas within the Lesedi Chamber, diagnostic skeletal material allows a clear attribution to H. naledi. Both adult and immature material is present. The hominin remains represent at least three individuals based upon duplication of elements, but more individuals are likely present based upon the spatial context. The most significant specimen is the near-complete cranium of a large individual, designated LES1, with an endocranial volume of approximately 610 ml and associated postcranial remains. The Lesedi Chamber skeletal sample extends our knowledge of the morphology and variation of H. naledi, and evidence of H. naledi from both recovery localities shows a consistent pattern of differentiation from other hominin species. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.24232.001

Carnivoran Remains from the Malapa Hominin Site, South Africa

Recent discoveries at the new hominin-bearing deposits of Malapa, South Africa, have yielded a rich faunal assemblage associated with the newly described hominin taxon Australopithecus sediba. Dating of this deposit using U-Pb and palaeomagnetic methods has provided an age of 1.977 Ma, being one of the most accurately dated, time constrained deposits in the Plio-Pleistocene of southern Africa. To date, 81 carnivoran specimens have been identified at this site including members of the families Canidae, Viverridae, Herpestidae, Hyaenidae and Felidae. Of note is the presence of the extinct taxon Dinofelis cf. D. barlowi that may represent the last appearance date for this species. Extant large carnivores are represented by specimens of leopard (Panthera pardus) and brown hyaena (Parahyaena brunnea). Smaller carnivores are also represented, and include the genera Atilax and Genetta, as well as Vulpes cf. V. chama. Malapa may also represent the first appearance date for Felis nigripes (Black-footed cat). The geochronological age of Malapa and the associated hominin taxa and carnivoran remains provide a window of research into mammalian evolution during a relatively unknown period in South Africa and elsewhere. In particular, the fauna represented at Malapa has the potential to elucidate aspects of the evolution of Dinofelis and may help resolve competing hypotheses about faunal exchange between East and Southern Africa during the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene.

Diet of brown hyaenas (Parahyaena brunnea) on the Namibian coast

The diet of brown hyaenas on the southern Namibian coast was determined via direct observation, scat analysis and by examining the faunal remains at nine dens consisting of 16 135 bones and bone fragments. All remains were identified to species and element where possible. Movements of four individual hyaenas from three different coastal clans were tracked via satellite collar. Range use was higher in coastal areas than in inland areas of the range. However, seasonal range use differences were detected. Seals formed the major proportion of the diet determined by scat analysis. In addition, the number of seal remains found at dens decreased with increasing distance to a coastal food source, scat analysis and direct observations indicated that the local population of hyaenas utilises a much broader food source than just seals. Behavioural differences between the current study population and previously reported populations of Parahyaen a brunnea are noted.

A new species of fox from the Australopithecus sediba type locality, Malapa, South Africa

ABSTRACT The 1.977 Ma site of ‘Malapa’ (Gauteng, South Africa) has yielded important new fossils, including the type specimens of the new hominin species Australopithecus sediba. Recently, we reported the first Carnivora specimens to have been recovered from the site. That sample included members of Felidae, Herpestidae and Hyaenidae. That first report also included three associated small canid specimens (an M2, a rib and a posterior mandibular fragment including the P4, M1, coronoid, condylar and angular processes) that we attributed to Vulpes cf. V. chama. In this paper, we compare these specimens to a broad sample of modern and fossil foxes and conclude that these specimens are distinct enough to be referred to a new species, here described and named Vulpes skinneri.

A Preliminary Assessment of the Carnivore Community Outside Johannesburg, South Africa

INTRODUCTION The UNESCO Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai and Evirons World Heritage Site, known as the Cradle of Humankind (–25.948938°S;27.784395°E) in South Africa, is known for its numerous fossil sites (Hilton-Barber & Berger 2002; Dirks et al. 2010) but little is known regarding its current carnivore diversity. Occasionally a leopard (Panthera pardus) attack will make the news and a leopard den was examined in 2000 (de Ruiter & Berger 2000;de Ruiter & Berger 2001), while local ranchers and farm managers report a high number of black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) in the area (H. Visser & T. Nash, pers.comm.). In addition, brown hyaenas (Hyaena brunnea) are frequently sighted by locals (H. Visser & T. Nash, pers. comm.). Thorn et al. (2011) suggested that servals (Leptailurus serval ) no longer occur in the North West Province region of the Cradle of Humankind but that black-backed jackals, brown hyaenas, leopards and caracals (Caracal caracal ) still occur in the area. Other reviews (Friedmann & Daly 2004; Skinner & Chimimba 2005) indicate that the study area is within the ranges of the various carnivores identified in this study. The carnivore community in the fossil record of the region is very diverse with a greater biodiversity than found today. The site of Cooper’s Cave has 17 identified carnivore species, including seven felids (including leopard), four hyaenids (including brown hyaena), two canids (including black-backed jackal), three viverrids and one mustelid (de Ruiter et al. 2009). The site of Malapa has yielded specimens from both brown hyaena and leopard, which date to 1.977 Mya (Kuhn et al. 2011). In addition, brown hyaena have been identified from the sites of Plovers Lake, Kromdraai, Sterkfontein and Swartkrans; leopard have been identified from Drimolen, Kromdraai, Sterkfontein and Swartkrans; large-spotted genets (Genetta tigrina) have been identified from Plovers Lake and Swartkrans; small-spotted genets (Genetta genetta) from Sterkfontein; honey badger (Mellivora capensis), African clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) and black-backed jackal all from Plovers Lake (Werdelin & Peigne 2010). This illustrates the resilience of these species in the region. To gain a better understanding of the current carnivore community inhabiting the Cradle of Humankind we used camera traps to investigate the presence of carnivores in the Malapa Nature Reserve and John Nash Nature Reserve.We report on the number of species detected and frequency of detection.

Identification of fossilized eggshells from the Taung hominin locality, Taung, Northwest Province, South Africa

While an avian component within faunal remains from the Dart Deposits, Taung, South Africa, has been discussed for nearly a century, the taxa present have not been identified to species. Here we conduct a systematic analysis of fossilized eggshell fragments in order to document the presence of specific avian taxa at Taung during the Plio-Pleistocene. A comparative analysis of surface morphology and surface curvatures of fragmentary eggshells eliminated all but three extant avian taxa as potential sources for the fossilized fragments: a large eagle, an eagle owl (Bubo sp.) or a guinea fowl (subfamily Numidinae). The likelihood for each of these three taxa as a source is discussed by evaluating surface curvature matches between the fossilized fragments and extant eggshells. The two most complete fossil eggshells recovered from Taung have distinct carbon isotope signatures indicating that they belong to two different, granivorous and carnivorous, guilds. While these identifications contribute to the debate over whether or not there was an avian agent of collection for the Taung fossils, including perhaps the Taung Child, by establishing direct evidence for a raptor component in the Taung faunal assemblage, they cannot address specific predator-prey behaviour.

Fossil Carder Bee's Nest from the Hominin Locality of Taung, South Africa.

The Buxton-Norlim Limeworks southwest of Taung, South Africa, is renowned for the discovery of the first Australopithecus africanus fossil, the ‘Taung Child’. The hominin was recovered from a distinctive pink calcrete that contains an abundance of invertebrate ichnofauna belonging to the Coprinisphaera ichnofacies. Here we describe the first fossil bee’s nest, attributed to the ichnogenus Celliforma, from the Plio-Pleistocene of Africa. Petrographic examination of a cell lining revealed the preservation of an intricate organic matrix lined with the calcitic casts of numerous plant trichomes–a nesting behaviour unique to the modern-day carder bees (Anthidiini). The presence of Celliforma considered alongside several other recorded ichnofossils can be indicative of a dry, savannah environment, in agreement with recent work on the palaeoenvironment of Plio-Pleistocene southern Africa. Moreover, the occurrence of ground-nesting bees provides further evidence that the pink calcrete deposits are of pedogenic origin, rather than speleogenic origin as has previously been assumed. This study demonstrates the potential value of insect trace fossils as palaeoenvironmental indicators.