Brian Nicholson

Some political and cultural issues in the globalisation of software development: case experience from Britain and India

Abstract Global outsourcing of software development is a phenomenon that is receiving considerable interest from North American and European companies currently under pressure to meet their growing manpower resource shortages and find new ways to cut costs. However, these outsourcing arrangements are technologically and organisationally complex, and present a variety of challenges to manage effectively. In this paper we discuss results from an ongoing longitudinal study of a British firms attempts to develop and manage global software outsourcing arrangements with an Indian software company. More specifically, we focus on understanding management challenges along three key dimensions of culture, organisational politics and the process of distributed development across time and space. The process of globalisation provides the context within which these management challenges can be investigated.

Embedded knowledge and offshore software development

Abstract Offshore software development scenarios may include groups with domain specific knowledge who collaborate internationally across multiple local contexts. A key challenge in the understanding and also practice of such distributed work is concerned with the issue of knowledge, and how it can be effectively managed. In this paper, we develop a conceptual scheme based on theories associated with embedded knowledge. Drawing on evidence from a longitudinal case study of a British software company with an offshore subsidiary in India, we discuss problems associated with the embeddedness of knowledge in two geographically separated units of a firm.

Small Firms and Offshore Software Outsourcing: High Transaction Costs and Their Mitigation

It seems surprising that small firms engage in offshore outsourcing given that they lack the resources that large firms possess to overcome the difficulties involved. We examine these factors using transaction cost theory’s three stages: contact costs, contract costs, and control costs. Then, using our field data from small client firms (in the United States and the United Kingdom), intermediaries, and offshore vendors, we analyze the mitigation approaches that reduce transaction costs for small firms. We identify nine such approaches: three for client firms and six for suppliers. For the small client firm, they are liaisons of knowledge flows, gaining experience, and overcoming opportunism; and, for the service providers, they are onshore presence, reducing contact costs, simplifying contracting, providing control channels, expert intermediaries, and standardization of services.

Software export success factors and strategies in 'follower' nations

Many countries world-wide are becoming active or interested in software exports. This paper initially analyses the software export experiences of India, Ireland and Israel; the three largest software ‘followers’ (those which developed a software industry after the 1970s). It develops a new ‘Software Export Success Model’ on the basis of that analysis. This model, having been developed as a descriptive/analytical framework, is then applied in a number of ways. First, as a comparative framework, helping to identify current strengths and weaknesses of two ‘second-tier’ followers – Russia and China – as compared particularly with India. Secondly, as a predictive foundation for understanding likely sectoral trajectories within these second-tier nations. Finally, as a prescriptive foundation from which guidance can be derived on the strategies and interventions that these countries may need to adopt for software export growth. As well as demonstrating the value of this new framework for conceptual analysis, this paper also shows how it can have practical value to policy-makers, industry association representatives, consultants and others involved with software sector strategy. Although beyond the scope of this paper, it appears that the model will also serve as a framework for equivalent analysis and guidance for the many other follower nations who have recently entered into software exports.

Using grounded theory in interpretive management accounting research

Purpose - The aim of this paper is to assess and explain the role of grounded theory (GT) in interpretive management accounting research (IMAR) and seeks to answer the question: can interpretive researchers use GT? And if so, how? Design/methodology/approach - This is a theoretical paper that attempts to investigate how researchers can use GT in relation to their ontological stance, methodological position and research methods. Findings - The paper suggests that GT offers a balance between the expediency of the research findings, thereby allowing researchers freedom to interpret management accounting practices, and the development of rigorous theory from IMAR. Research limitations/implications - The paper provides an analysis of GT from an interpretive perspective and, clearly, there are other research perspectives which could have been discussed. Practical implications - GT can be a powerful tool that researchers could use to collect and analyse empirical data. However, researchers need to align GT with the broader paradigm they adopt when researching social phenomena. The paper provides some general guidelines for IMARs who want to use GT in their research. Originality/value - This paper shows that GT can offer interpretive researchers a way of balancing the need to develop theory, which is grounded in everyday practices, and the recognition that the research process is inherently subjective. However, it is argued that in interpretive research GT cannot provide a simple “recipe book” which, if followed rigorously, will result in a high-quality research (i.e. valid, reliable and unbiased). Nevertheless, the guidelines provide a way for IMARs, who use GT to improve the quality of their research findings.

Conviviality of Internet social networks: An exploratory study of Internet campaigns in Iran

In this study, we focus on the relationship between Internet social networks and societal change by examining case studies of the impact of Internet-based campaigns in Iran. Ivan Illichs theory of ‘Conviviality of Tools’ enables an analysis of the conviviality of the Internet. Subsequently, this conceptual lens is used to examine empirical data from two Internet-based campaigns. The paper contributes theoretical and practical implications regarding conviviality of Internet social networks and the accomplishment of conviviality in society. Our findings show that Internet conviviality cannot be treated as an independent variable with deterministic outcomes on society, but as a technology that is shaped by ongoing economic and political forces. The Iranian Internet social networks are not universally accessible, frequently induce fragmented, nonsensical, and enraged discussion and its potential as a tool of liberation is tempered by the Iranian government adaption of systems of surveillance and censorship. We argue that the findings of this study have some general implications of value to researchers studying computerisation movements and Internet social networks in other countries.

Information communication technologies and the millennium development goals

This special issue of the Journal of Information Technology for Development focuses on specific cases of how information and communication technologies (ICTs) can facilitate the attainment of the millennium development goals (MDGs). As a result, perhaps we are subject to the criticism of jumping on the MDG bandwagon – “the juggernaut of all bandwagons” (Saith, 2006). However, consideration of how ICT can serve developmental objectives and goals opens crucial debates. For instance, there is realistic skepticism on whether scarce resources should be used on ICT expenditure when there are so many competing priorities and the infrastructure for the effective and efficient utilization of ICT is often substandard (Thompson & Walsham, 2010). So why a special issue on the MDGs? We are nearly two-thirds of the way to the 2015 deadline of achieving the MDGs and the attainment of these goals remains elusive or “off-track.” ICTs have potential to contribute to meeting the MDGs as part of the MDGs themselves (Goal 8, Target 18) and/or impacting the achievement of other MDGs. ICTs can be used to more effectively tackle the MDGs through improved monitoring and surveillance systems on progress toward the MDGs, improving economic growth and reducing poverty, and more efficient and effective provision of basic social services (UNDP, 2008). However, the first full articulation of the MDGs (UN, 2000) was criticized for portraying a very narrow agenda for development. For example, MDG 1 can be critiqued for reducing poverty to those below the US

Human resource development policy in the context of software exports: case evidence from Costa Rica

1 a day income poverty line rather than inability to meet basic needs (Saith, 2006). Relative poverty positions and structural inequalities are not addressed. Additionally, it can be argued that like the precedents to the MDGs, they are subject to the same criticism – the MDGs remain hegemonic (“one-size-fit-all”). They were imposed by the north and are “denying developing countries the very paths to development that industrialised countries used” (Heeks, 2005, p. 9). Additionally, the measurement of progress, or lack thereof, toward the targets imposes huge data requirements on developing countries, in addition to requiring some form of baseline to start with. But, commitments to improving and assessing progress on human development are to be welcomed. The critiques above largely pertain to the reduction of the MDGs to these targets when assessing progress in development. To obtain a more accurate picture of the global developmental landscape necessitates an awareness of embedded structures, the influence of global and national economic, social and political powers and recognition that development is a global, not a developing country, issue. The papers in this issue illustrate that a contextualized, multi-disciplinary and multi-leveled approach to MDG attainment is required. Achieving the MDGs is not just a matter of measurement of the targets, but recognizing and integrating the social and cultural dimensions of development into an assessment of progress and embracing the opportunities ICTs can offer. The socio-technical focus of all the papers interrogates the goal-oriented vision of the MDGs and the complexity of assessing development through the measurement of the targets for each of these goals. Deeper understanding of the institutional logics embedded in ICT and information

Building Iran's Software industry: an assessment of plans and prospects

Software industry development is acknowledged as an important engine of economic growth for many less developed countries. The role of national policy has been identified by various researchers as a catalyst to software industry and software exports development. Software development is a service that is both labour and knowledge-intensive, and thus an important aspect of related policy is concerned with the provision of appropriately educated and trained human resources in sufficient quantity. This paper provides an analysis of the human resources issues facing policy makers in less developed countries engaged in software exports policy formulation. The complexities are highlighted through the case study of Costa Rica, where there is an ongoing national strategic planning effort to increase software exports.

How green is my outsourcer? Measuring sustainability in global IT outsourcing

A number of aspirant, late entrant countries such as Jordan, Argentina and others have attempted to develop strategies to enter the global software and offshore services marketplace attracted by the experience of other nations and buoyant international demand. The Iranian software industry has high levels of domestic demand and potential in some international and regional markets. The reformist government has engaged in diplomatic missions and developed an informatics plan, a component of which aims to develop the software industry. It is hoped that a strong software industry will reduce the ‘brain drain’ of Irans young, low‐cost highly educated people. However, regional and domestic instabilities, a USA imposed trade embargo, outdated technologies, lack of international quality standards and endemic piracy present significant barriers to success in this endeavour. Drawing on empirical data from interviews, secondary literature and a model of software export success, this paper contributes by presenting an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of Iran as a software export nation. Iran is largely unexplored in the information technology literature. Secondly, the paper provides an assessment of the software export success model in relation to the Iranian context.