Brian R. Belland

A Framework for Designing Scaffolds That Improve Motivation and Cognition

A problematic, yet common, assumption among educational researchers is that when teachers provide authentic, problem-based experiences, students will automatically be engaged. Evidence indicates that this is often not the case. In this article, we discuss (a) problems with ignoring motivation in the design of learning environments, (b) problem-based learning and scaffolding as one way to help, (c) how scaffolding has strayed from what was originally equal parts motivational and cognitive support, and (d) a conceptual framework for the design of scaffolds that can enhance motivation as well as cognitive outcomes. We propose guidelines for the design of computer-based scaffolds to promote motivation and engagement while students are solving authentic problems. Remaining questions and suggestions for future research are then discussed.

Validity and Problem-Based Learning Research: A Review of Instruments Used to Assess Intended Learning Outcomes

Problem-based learning (PBL) spread from the medical school to other university and K-12 contexts due, in part, to the stated promise that PBL produces the target outcomes of deep content learning, increased problem-solving ability, and increased self-directed learning (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). However, research results have been unclear. This paper examines how the three target outcomes of PBL were measured in 33 empirical studies. Results indicate that few studies included 1) theoretical frameworks for the assessed variables and constructs, 2) rationales for how chosen assessments matched the constructs measured, or 3) other information required for readers to assess the validity of authors’ interpretations. Implications for future research are discussed. In problem-based learning (PBL), students generate and pursue learning issues to understand an ill-structured problem and develop a feasible solution (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). Initially developed to improve medical students’ problem-solving and self-directed learning abilities (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980), PBL has since spread to many levels of education (K-12, undergraduate, and graduate) and a variety of disciplines, ranging from language arts to biology (Barrows & Tamblyn; Chin & Chia, 2005; Gallagher, Stepien & Rosenthal, 1992; Reiter, Rasmann-Nuhlicek, Biernat, & Lawrence, 1994; Torp & Sage, 1998). This increase in PBL use has been due largely to PBL’s stated promise to promote deep content learning (Hmelo-Silver) as well as students’ problem-solving and self-directed learning abilities. While many authors have described the diffi culty in achieving these outcomes (Colliver, 2000; Dochy, Segers, Van den Bossche, & Gijbels, 2003; Vernon & Blake, 1993), few have discussed the diffi culty in operationalizing and measuring these outcomes. Even when researchers tackle this task, their eff orts are not always as transparent as they could be, thus making it diffi cult if not impossible, for others to benefi t from their work. The purpose of this paper is to examine how these intended outcomes have been measured and to determine how we might improve and benefi t from work in this area.

Scaffolding: Definition, Current Debates, and Future Directions

Instructional scaffolding can be defined as support provided by a teacher/parent, peer, or a computer- or a paper-based tool that allows students to meaningfully participate in and gain skill at a task that they would be unable to complete unaided. The metaphor of scaffolding has been applied to instruction in contexts ranging from literacy education to science education, and among individuals ranging from infants to graduate students. In this chapter, scaffolding is defined and its theoretical backing is explored. Then scaffolding strategies and examples are explored. Trends, findings, and implications of current empirical research are presented and discussed. Current debates in the scaffolding literature are explored, including whether (a) scaffolding needs to be based on dynamic assessment and fading, and (b) domain-specific knowledge needs to be embedded in scaffolding. Finally, future research directions are outlined, including transfer of responsibility, the interaction between teacher scaffolding and computer-based scaffolding, and other scaffolding aspects.

Inclusion and Problem-Based Learning: Roles of Students in a Mixed-Ability Group.

Abstract The literature on the use of problem-based learning in K–12 settings has traditionally focused on gifted and average students. However, mainstreaming is placing increasing numbers of students with special needs in general education classrooms. This case study examined how members of a small group in a mainstreamed seventh grade science class interacted with and supported each other as they engaged in a problem-based learning (PBL) unit. The group included one mainstreamed and two average students. We used conversation analysis and coding to analyze interview and video data of all 10 class sessions. Results indicated that each group member filled a unique role—group manager, task guidance provider, and task performer—and helped each other overcome individual difficulties. Results suggest that mainstreamed groups have the potential to effectively engage in PBL, and that PBL may increase the motivation and social confidence of students with special needs. We suggest types of scaffolds that could support mainstreamed students during PBL units.

Synthesizing Results from Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education: A Meta-Analysis.

Computer-based scaffolding assists students as they generate solutions to complex problems, goals, or tasks, helping increase and integrate their higher order skills in the process. However, despite decades of research on scaffolding in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education, no existing comprehensive meta-analysis has synthesized the results of these studies. This review addresses that need by synthesizing the results of 144 experimental studies (333 outcomes) on the effects of computer-based scaffolding designed to assist the full range of STEM learners (primary through adult education) as they navigated ill-structured, problem-centered curricula. Results of our random effect meta-analysis (a) indicate that computer-based scaffolding showed a consistently positive (ḡ = 0.46) effect on cognitive outcomes across various contexts of use, scaffolding characteristics, and levels of assessment and (b) shed light on many scaffolding debates, including the roles of customization (i.e., fading and adding) and context-specific support. Specifically, scaffolding’s influence on cognitive outcomes did not vary on the basis of context-specificity, presence or absence of scaffolding change, and logic by which scaffolding change is implemented. Scaffolding’s influence was greatest when measured at the principles level and among adult learners. Still scaffolding’s effect was substantial and significantly greater than zero across all age groups and assessment levels. These results suggest that scaffolding is a highly effective intervention across levels of different characteristics and can largely be designed in many different ways while still being highly effective.

K-12 Teachers' Perceptions of and Their Satisfaction with Interaction Type in Blended Learning Environments.

Blended learning is an effective approach to instruction that combines features of face-to-face learning and computer-mediated learning. This study investigated the relationship between student perceptions of three types of interaction and blended learning course satisfaction. The participants included K-12 teachers enrolled in a graduate-level course. Results indicate that students (a) perceived interaction as important to their learning experiences and (b) were moderately satisfied in their blended learning course. The predictive model of student satisfaction including three types of interaction was reliable. Of the three types of interaction, learner–content interaction was the strongest predictor of student satisfaction when the course design involved a low amount of collaborative activities. Additionally, student personality was found to be a vital factor for interaction and satisfaction in this type of course design. Students who reported having an extroverted personality noted more interaction and a higher level of student satisfaction than those who self-reported as introverted.

Habitus, Scaffolding, and Problem-Based Learning: Why Teachers’ Experiences as Students Matter

Despite evidence that it can help students learn higher-order thinking skills and gain deep content knowledge, problem-based learning (PBL) is not deployed on a large scale in K-12 classrooms. This conceptual chapter explores teacher’s past experiences, and resulting habitus, to explain the minimal extent of PBL in K-12 schools. Central to teachers’ abilities to implement PBL is their ability to provide scaffolding, and their habitus may interfere with this process. Implications for teacher education and teacher change are discussed.

Preparing Students with 21st Century Skills: Integrating Scientific Knowledge, Skills, and Epistemic Beliefs in Middle School Science Curricula

In the 21st century, every citizen needs to acquire adequate scientific knowledge and skills to be competitive in the job market, and be scientific literate in everyday contexts. The recent push for STEAM education calls for integrating science, technology, engineering, art, and mathematic components together to prepare students for 21th century challenges. To address these concerns, in this chapter we discuss how to prepare students with critical skills to succeed in the 21st century. Our discussion of reconceptualizing science curriculum in middle school level is based on three major perspectives. To prepare students to face the challenges in the 21st century, educators need to help students (1) acquire sufficient core scientific knowledge, (2) gain skills needed to engage in scientific practice, and (3) develop sophisticated epistemic beliefs to understand the nature of scientific knowledge and the methods of making it. We discuss the importance of each perspective in science education in light of the current literature, and address some remaining issues for future directions.

What Else (Besides the Syllabus) Should Students Learn in Introductory Physics

We have surveyed what various groups of instructors and students think students should learn in introductory physics. We started with a Delphi Study based on interviews with experts, then developed orthogonal responses to “what should we teach non‐physics majors besides the current syllabus topics?” AAPT attendees, atomic researchers, and PERC08 attendees were asked for their selections. All instructors rated “sense‐making of the answer” very highly and expert problem solving highly. PERers favored epistemology over problem solving, and atomic researchers “physics comes from a few principles.” Students at three colleges had preferences anti‐aligned with their teachers, preferring more modern topics, and the relationship of physics to everyday life and also to society (the only choice with instructor agreement), but not problem solving or sense‐making. Conclusion ♯1: we must show students how old physics is relevant to their world. Conclusion ♯2: significant course reform must start by reaching consensus o...

A Bayesian Network Meta-Analysis to Synthesize the Influence of Contexts of Scaffolding Use on Cognitive Outcomes in STEM Education:

Computer-based scaffolding provides temporary support that enables students to participate in and become more proficient at complex skills like problem solving, argumentation, and evaluation. While meta-analyses have addressed between-subject differences on cognitive outcomes resulting from scaffolding, none has addressed within-subject gains. This leaves much quantitative scaffolding literature not covered by existing meta-analyses. To address this gap, this study used Bayesian network meta-analysis to synthesize within-subjects (pre–post) differences resulting from scaffolding in 56 studies. We generated the posterior distribution using 20,000 Markov Chain Monte Carlo samples. Scaffolding has a consistently strong effect across student populations, STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines, and assessment levels, and a strong effect when used with most problem-centered instructional models (exception: inquiry-based learning and modeling visualization) and educational levels (exception: secondary education). Results also indicate some promising areas for future scaffolding research, including scaffolding among students with learning disabilities, for whom the effect size was particularly large (ḡ = 3.13).