Bruce M. Campbell

Challenges to Proponents of Common Property Recource Systems: Despairing Voices from the Social Forests of Zimbabwe

Abstract There is a fair degree of misplaced optimism about common property resource (CPR) management. In investigating common property issues for woodlands in communal areas in Zimbabwe, we are struck by the numerous case studies showing a breakdown of local institutions for CPR management, and the lack of any emerging alternative institutions for such management. There are a number of contributing economic, social and ecological factors to this phenomenon. We argue that the formal rule-based systems that form the cornerstones of the proposed CPR systems are far removed from the current institutional systems, rooted in norm-based controls. We suggest that advocacy of CPR systems has to be tempered with critical analysis.

Attitudes of Rural Communities to Animal Wildlife and Its Utilization in Chobe Enclave and Mababe Depression, Botswana

Rural communities in northern Botswana had negative attitudes towards animal wildlife even though they received benefits from it. The negative attitude was caused by wildlife damage to crops, losses of livestock to predators, loss of land to conservation, and lack of control over animal wildlife resources. The benefits derived from animal wildlife, such as the possibility of hunting, meat, cash income from animal products, and employment in the wildlife industry, were not highly valued, even though these benefits are of considerable importance to the local community ( e.g. much of the local employment is wildlife-related). Respondents who had fewer livestock and were more dependent on wildlife for protein, were more negative than others in their attitudes to animal wildlife. The beneficiaries of the wildlife industry were largely perceived as being the hunting and tourist companies. Respondents who were more affected by animal wildlife, those living closer to higher population-densities, and those having more crop losses, were more negative than others in their attitude to wildlife. The communities were distrustful of government motives and had a poor opinion of the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP). It is suggested that the present wildlife development programmes in this region of Botswana are likely to fail unless a change in approach is adopted by the local populace. Essential to our mind for the success of these programmes is the reduction of the negative impacts of animal wildlife, through, for example, fencing of agricultural land, improved control of problem animals, and adequate compensation schemes. It is also essential that local communities be given more control over the wildlife resources than they currently enjoy.

The energy transition in action: urban domestic fuel choices in a changing Zimbabwe

Two questionnaire surveys of fuel use by low-income households in Zimbabwe were conducted in four small towns in 1994, and in these towns plus four larger towns in 1999. An energy transition from wood through kerosene to electricity occurred (a) with rising household income, (b) with increasing electrification status among towns and (c) over time in the smaller towns, in spite of falling household incomes in two of the towns. Increasing discrepancy in the incomes of higher and lower income groups over time was not associated with greater divergence in their fuel choices. By 1999 electricity was used by almost all households in towns with good electricity supplies, while use of firewood in these towns was infrequent. However, even the wealthiest households continued to combine electricity with other fuels, usually kerosene. Electricity use by less affluent households is apparently limited by lack of connections in the home and by access to appliances, while fuel prices, which are subject to government subsidies and fell in real terms over 5 years, have been less important. Zimbabwes urban domestic energy policy has had considerable success in terms of equity, but this is increasingly difficult to maintain given present economic and political uncertainty.

Montane plant communities of Fynbos Biome

The vegetation of the mountains of the Fynbos Biome is classified and described, mostly on the basis of vegetation structure and higher taxa. Various gradients can be recognized. A gradient in soil conditions runs from coarse textured, nutrient-poor soils in non-grassy fynbos (Mountain Fynbos) through grassy fynbos and grassy non-fynbos (Eastern Fynbos and Grasslands & Grassy Shrubland) to finer textured and less nutrient-poor soils in the non-fynbos Karroid & Renoster Shrubland. Another gradient of significance can be likened to the tropical gradient running from the dry conditions of hot semi-deserts to savannas or grasslands to woodlands. At the dry extreme an open shrubland occurs (Karroid & Renoster Shrubland, Asteraceous Fynbos), at intermediate positions a herbland occurs (Restioid Fynbos) and at the wet extreme another type of shrubland occurs (Ericaceous Fynbos). This kind of moisture gradient occurs on individual mountains with the xeric end being at the base of the north slopes, and the mesic end being on the upper south aspects. Soil characteristics are closely linked to this gradient; the better developed soils being found on the south aspects. Another moisture gradient is apparent in the vegetation. This gradient runs from the mesic southern coastal mountains to the north west where summer droughts are extremely severe although total rainfall may be similar.

Small-scale patterning in the recruitment of forest species during succession in tropical dry forest, Mozambique

Within a few years of field abandonment on the coastal dunes, a considerable number of species of trees and woody lianes of the climax evergreen forest enter the succession. At a relatively large-scale of analysis (a 100 m2 plot), there is no evidence of soil development during the early succession, with no accumulation of soil organic matter nor nutrients being detected. At this scale there is, therefore, little support for the facilitation model of succession. However, when smaller scales of analysis are employed (e.g. a plot equivalent to the canopy area of a sapling) a very different picture emerges; most recruitment of forest woody species occurs beneath saplings found in early succession. Nutrient concentrations were higher in soils under sapling canopies than in soils beyond sapling canopies. With increasing sapling size, an increasing number of seedlings of forest woody species were found and there is progressive soil amelioration. Thus, during the early succession, there is considerable small-scale patterning in soil development and recruitment. This pattern is largely established through bird dispersal, with the intensity of recruitment being dependent on the distance to seed sources.

Shifting Patterns of Fuel and Wood Use by Households in Rural Zimbabwe

A questionnaire survey of fuel and wood use was administered to approximately 1500 households in rural Zimbabwe in 1994 and repeated in 1999. The nine localities covered by the survey fell into four strata distinguished by woodland cover, distance from urban centres and whether communal or resettlement (ex-commercial farming) areas. Over time household assets increased, but incomes remained constant in all but one stratum. Simultaneously wood became scarcer according to respondents. In all four strata firewood consumption fell markedly between 1994 and 1999. This was partially, but not entirely, due to switches to other fuels, either electricity near towns or non-wood biomass fuel in deforested areas further from towns. In other areas, non-wood biomass fuels declined considerably. Kerosene use showed mixed patterns, with decreases in the numbers of consumers but increased rates of consumption. Wealthier households were more likely to use modern fuels such as kerosene for cooking, candles and electricity. The general reduction in firewood consumption entailed changes in collection practices and increased purchase of wood, but it is not clear how fuel use efficiency was improved by such a great margin. Utilisation of wood for construction also declined over the five year period.

People, values, and woodlands: A field report ofemergent themes in interdisciplinary research in Zimbabwe

The Value of Trees project, funded bythe International Development Research Council ofCanada (IDRC), supported the joint efforts of theUniversity of Alberta and the University of Zimbabweto investigate the economic costs and benefitsassociated with trees and forests in the small holderfarming sector in Zimbabwe. The Value of Trees project provided funding for graduate students andfaculty from the two participating universities tocarry out studies in the disciplines of forestry,agricultural economics, and sociology in order toprovide policy recommendations regarding the role ofwoodlands in sustainable small holder farming in acontext where agricultural production appears to putincreasing stress on woodlands. The numerous projectsincluded such topics as the following: the use offuelwood under conditions of scarcity, tree tenure andlocal institutions in woodland use and sustainability,gender and wealth as related to tree planting andconservation, time preferences in natural resourceconsumption, ownership and economic impact ofeucalyptus woodlots, cultural and economic valuesassociated with woodlands, and uses and conflictsrelating to woodlands across different land categoriessuch as resettlement land and state forests. Manyother studies were not funded by, but were associatedwith Value of Trees. The findings fall withintwo broad categories. The first set includes thosedirectly related to generating values for differentaspects of the woodlands, particularly from theperspectives of rural households. The main finding isthat despite being highly valued by local people forboth economic and social reasons, woodlands are rankedlower in importance by local farmers than agriculturalland. The second set of findings relates to thecomplexities of the social system of the woodlands.Local institutions, history, resource conflicts, andtenure issues emerge as key to understanding the waythat people interact with the woodlands. Finally,local people have valuable knowledge and strategies tooffer in the design of sustainable management. Thepolicy implications of these findings for Zimbabwe arethat economic incentives could be important in asustainable woodlands strategy, but that anysuccessful program must incorporate an understandingof the profoundly complex and at times contradictoryhuman dynamics of woodland use and values.

Spatial pattern, regeneration and growth rates of Brachystegia spiciformis and Julbernardia globiflora

Past work on tree-to-tree interactions in semi-arid savannas, through the use of nearest neighbour analysis, has shown both a regular dispersion pattern and a positive correlation between the size of a tree and the distance to its nearest neighbour. From these results, the importance of competition has been inferred. In the present study, tree-to-tree interactions in a mesic savanna woodland at Marondera, Zimbabwe, dominated by relatively small-sized individuals of Brachystegia spiciformis and Julbernardia globiflora, were examined. Results show that the regular dispersion pattern is uncommon; that there are few significant positive correlations between size of individual and distance to nearest neighbour; and that growth rate is not consistently correlated with size and distance of nearest neighbour. Results of a study of regeneration relative to canopy cover suggest a possible mechanism for these findings: unlike semi-arid savannas, young plants often grow in under-canopy environments so that early spacing of young trees does not occur. Significant positive correlations between the size of a tree and the distance to its nearest neighbour were found in a stand of larger, presumably older, trees, suggesting that such a relationship only develops in mesic miombo woodland through a thinning process as the trees mature. Familial clumping, which is common in the study area, may mask spatial patterns.

Sustainability and peasant farming systems: Observations from Zimbabwe

Many authors suggest the need to define ‘sustainable development’in operational terms. This paper looks at the problems ofattempting to ask whether peasant farming systems are sustainable.Any attempt at sustainability assessment needs to consider issuesrelated to the selected indicators or performance criteria, spatialscale or boundaries, and temporal scale. While there is certainlya need for more rigorous analysis of sustainability issues, thereis limited outlook for an approach based on indicators. Even if themany purely technical problems associated with specific indicatorscan be surmounted, will accurate bio-physical data advance ourknowledge about sustainability? Peasant systems arepolitically-guided management systems, whose boundaries are the state,not the field or the farm. Given the dynamic nature of peasant farmingsystems, where do we draw the line in assessing sustainability?Attempts at sustainability assessment 100 years ago or even 20–30years ago would have been completely superseded by events. We drawattention to the system as a whole, to a web of interconnections,causes and effects – of varying significance over both time andspace.

Sustaining incomes from non timber forest products: introduction and synthesis

ABSTRACT Among the reasons why an income that people get from any given non timber forest product can decline are, over-harvesting of the resource base, capturing of the business by local elite, domestication of the product, decreased demand, or manufacturing of substitutes. In all of these scenarios, income for local collectors is likely to diminish or disappear altogether. This Special Issue of the International Tree Crops Journal brings together a number of studies from Bolivia, Peru, Zimbabwe and Cameroon assessing the sustainability of incomes from non timber forest products once their commercialisation has already been achieved. The studies conclude that avoiding over-harvesting of a commercially successful forest product will in most cases require some restraints on harvesting, usually through developing rules and regulations at the appropriate level. These institutional arrangements are also needed to avoid exclusive income capturing by powerful elites. Sustained production can also be achieved through intensified management or cultivation. Maintaining market demand requires constant marketing effort, or adjusting the products that are supplied to different demands. Even so, there is always the possibility that commercially successful forest products will be replaced by others that provide a higher consumer satisfaction or are produced more efficiently. A constant effort is thus needed to develop new products, for which the entire production-marketing may have to be setup.