Bruno Serio

Implementation of a fringe visibility based algorithm in coherence scanning interferometry for surface roughness measurement

Coherence scanning interferometry (CSI) is an optical profilometry technique that uses the scanning of white light interference fringes over the depth of the surface of a sample to measure the surface roughness. Many different types of algorithms have been proposed to determine the fringe envelope, such as peak fringe intensity detection, demodulation, centroid detection, FFT, wavelets and signal correlation. In this paper we present a very compact and efficient algorithm based on the measurement of the signal modulation using a second-order nonlinear filter derived from Teager-Kaiser methods and known as the five-sample adaptive (FSA) algorithm. We describe its implementation in a measuring system for static surface roughness measurement. Two envelope peak detection techniques are demonstrated. The first one, using second order spline fitting results in an axial sensitivity of 25 nm and is better adapted to rough samples. The second one, using local phase correction, gives nanometric axial sensitivity and is more appropriate for smooth samples. The choice of technique is important to minimize artifacts. Surface measurement results are given on a silicon wafer and a metallic contact on poly-Si and the results are compared with those from a commercial interferometer and AFM, demonstrating the robustness of the FSA algorithm.

In-plane optical measurement of vibrations of MEMS: gradient methods using interferometry and image processing

Optical probing is a non invasive tool useful to characterize the vibrations of the small moving components of microsystems (MEMS/MOEMS). This paper presents two complementary methods that can sense in-plane components of the vibration. The first one is a heterodyne interferometer, commonly used for out-of-plane component detection. The edge of the sample partially occults the laser beam, and, consequently, the intensity is amplitude modulated when the sample vibrates. The electronics has been modified so that both phase and amplitude of the output signal are extracted. Actual sensitivity is about 10-11 m/√Hz. In the second gradient method, a parallel acquisition of synchronous images is performed with a camera and a microcomputer, which stores the successive images for subsequent processing. Before digital lock-in processing, the images sequence is inter-correlated and interpolated to increase the accuracy of the method. This simple processing technique allows nanometer sensitivity. Both techniques are presented, analyzed and compared from theoretical and experimental point of view.

Computationally efficient scalar nonparaxial modeling of optical wave propagation in the far-field

We present a scalar model to overcome the computation time and sampling interval limitations of the traditional Rayleigh-Sommerfeld (RS) formula and angular spectrum method in computing wide-angle diffraction in the far-field. Numerical and experimental results show that our proposed method based on an accurate nonparaxial diffraction step onto a hemisphere and a projection onto a plane accurately predicts the observed nonparaxial far-field diffraction pattern, while its calculation time is much lower than the more rigorous RS integral. The results enable a fast and efficient way to compute far-field nonparaxial diffraction when the conventional Fraunhofer pattern fails to predict correctly.

High-dynamic-range microscope imaging based on exposure bracketing in full-field optical coherence tomography

By applying the proposed high-dynamic-range (HDR) technique based on exposure bracketing, we demonstrate a meaningful reduction in the spatial noise in image frames acquired with a CCD camera so as to improve the fringe contrast in full-field optical coherence tomography (FF-OCT). This new signal processing method thus allows improved probing within transparent or semitransparent samples. The proposed method is demonstrated on 3 μm thick transparent polymer films of Mylar, which, due to their transparency, produce low contrast fringe patterns in white-light interference microscopy. High-resolution tomographic analysis is performed using the technique. After performing appropriate signal processing, resulting XZ sections are observed. Submicrometer-sized defects can be lost in the noise that is present in the CCD images. With the proposed method, we show that by increasing the signal-to-noise ratio of the images, submicrometer-sized defect structures can thus be detected.

Detection of defects in a transparent polymer with high resolution tomography using white light scanning interferometry and noise reduction

Transparent layers such as polymers are complex and can contain defects which are not detectable with classical optical inspection techniques. With an interference microscope, tomographic analysis can be used to obtain initial structural information over the depth of the sample by scanning the fringes along the Z axis and performing appropriate signal processing to extract the fringe envelope. By observing the resulting XZ section, low contrast, sub-μm sized defects can be lost in the noise which is present in images acquired with a CCD camera. It is possible to reduce temporal and spatial noise from the camera by applying image processing methods such as image averaging, dark frame subtraction or flat field division. In this paper, we present some first results obtained by this means with a white light scanning interferometer on a Mylar polymer, used currently as an insulator in electronics and micro-electronics. We show that sub-μm sized structures contained in the layer, initially lost in noise and barely observable, can be detected by applying a combination of image processing methods to each of the scanned XY images along the Z-axis. In addition, errors from optical imperfections such as dust particles on the lenses or components of the system can be compensated for with this method. We thus demonstrate that XZ section images of a transparent sample can be denoised by improving each of the XY acquisition images. A quantitative study of the noise reduction is presented in order to validate the performance of this technique.

High speed implementation of a three-dimensional shape profiler with submillimeter precision using a digital light processing device and a new efficient algorithm for absolute phase retrieval

Abstract. The processing of structured light images in real time is a challenging task for the development of three-dimensional (3-D) shape measurement methods. This paper presents a high speed and low-cost optical profiler implemented using a projection method based on the use of a digital light-processing device to illuminate the object to be measured. The image processing of the reflected structured light pattern allows potential real-time capabilities. The proposed method of absolute phase retrieval for unwrapping the relative phase uses a single additional staircase intensity pattern to determine and correct 2π discontinuities in the phase. Good results are obtained when the method is compared to another which uses three additional fringe patterns to determine the stair phase and then the absolute phase. Since the proposed technique uses only one extra pattern instead of three, it is less costly in terms of computation complexity and is thus faster. The hardware of the developed fringe projection system for a 3-D macroscopic reconstruction is presented and the performance of the method is evaluated. Simulated and experimental results are presented and compared to the other absolute phase-retrieval method. The proposed method is suitable for measuring 3-D object surfaces for a possible implementation in real time.

Phase correlation method for subpixel in-plane vibration measurements of MEMS by stroboscopic microscopy

Accurate estimation of displacement between successive images is a significant topic in the measurement of in-plane vibrations of microscopic objects such as micro-actuators. Actual subpixel motion estimation algorithms require the interpolation of interpixel values which undesirably increases the overall complexity and data flow and deteriorates estimation accuracy. Methods that do not use interpolation for achieving subpixel accuracy are scarcer in the literature. One approach for subpixel movement estimation without interpolation is based on phase correlation algorithm. This algorithm estimates the relative shift between two image blocks by means of a normalized cross-correlation function computed in the 2-D spatial Fourier domain. Indeed, the method is based on the Fourier shift theorem. The cross power spectrum of two images, containing subpixel shifts, is a polyphase decomposition of a Dirac delta function. By estimating the sum of polyphase components one can then determine subpixel shifts along each axis. Phase correlation is the state of the art for interpolation-free subpixel shift measurement between two frames, but this method is strictly limited to subpixel shifts. So, we have implemented this method using a standard optical microscope in order to observe subpixel translations with high spatial resolution measurements (down to 1 nm in the best cases). In this paper, we propose an application of this method to characterize the vibration mode shapes of a small silicon beam used in near-field acoustic microscopy. Harmonic movements of a few tens of nanometers are measured and presented.

Embedding properties of optical fibers integrated into ceramic coatings obtained by wire flame thermal spray

The elaboration of smart materials with optical fiber sensors embedded into several dissimilar layers is capable of monitoring various system parameters inside the layered structure without damaging the host structure itself. This work mainly concentrates on the thermal elaboration process used to embed optical fibers into ceramic coating layers and their characterization. A new mechanical holder is first proposed in order to maintain the optical fiber during the thermal spray process and protect it from the strong atmospheric turbulence caused by the heat flux. Wire flame thermal spray where particles are propelled on the substrate at a temperature of more than 2000 °C is chosen as the elaboration process and the favorable elaboration conditions are evaluated. The microscopic characteristics of both the surface and cross-section of the embedding structure are evaluated, and the mechanical adhesion strength of the embedded optical fiber is then measured and discussed. The results show that the optical fiber remains undamaged after the thermal spray process and keeps perfect adhesion with the ceramic coating, making the former a competitive method to elaborate the embedded hybrid structure.

Thermal imaging method to visualize a hidden painting thermally excited by far infrared radiations

The diagnosis of hidden painting is a major issue for cultural heritage. In this paper, a non-destructive active infrared thermographic technique was considered to reveal paintings covered by a lime layer. An extended infrared spectral range radiation was used as the excitation source. The external long wave infrared energy source delivered to the surface is then propagated through the material until it encounters a painting zone. Due to several thermal effects, the sample surface then presents non-uniformity patterns. Using a high sensitive infrared camera, the presence of covered pigments can thus be highlighted by the analysis of the non-stationary phenomena. Reconstituted thermal contrast images of mural samples covered by a lime layer are shown.

Optical fiber embedding in thermal spray coating promises new smart materials design able to operate under harsh environment

The in-situ detection of temperature or stresses produced by the thermal spraying process is important for both the optimization of the elaboration conditions and the subsequent service monitoring of these systems. Optical fiber sensors are excellent candidates for this area of application since they can be embedded into the layers of several dissimilar materials of smart structures. This work relates mainly to the process of embedding optical fibers into ceramic coatings and to the characteristics of the embedded fiber. Firstly, thermal flame spraying is chosen as the elaboration process. Next, a thermal model is proposed in order to evaluate the thermal strain variation with the temperature during the elaboration process in the structure. Finally, a microscopic observation of the embedded optical fiber in the ceramic coating is reported, the mechanical adhesion strength of the embedded fiber is evaluated and the results of the optical attenuation change during the elaboration process are given. They show that no significant fluctuation of the optical power transmitted in the fiber is observed.