Buyankhuu Tuvshintur

Functional and Morphologic Characterizations of the Diabetic Mouse Corpus Cavernosum: Comparison of a Multiple Low‐Dose and a Single High‐Dose Streptozotocin Protocols

INTRODUCTION With the advent of genetically modified mice, it seems particularly advantageous to develop a mouse model of diabetic erectile dysfunction. AIM To establish a mouse model of type I diabetes by implementation of either multiple low-dose streptozotocin (STZ) protocol or single high-dose STZ protocol and to evaluate morphologic alterations in the cavernous tissue and subsequent derangements in penile hemodynamics in vivo. METHODS Eight-week-old C57BL/6J mice were divided into three groups: a control group, a group administered the multiple low-dose STZ protocol (50 mg/kg x 5 days), and a group administered the single high-dose STZ protocol (200 mg/kg). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES After 8 weeks, erectile function was measured by electrical stimulation of the cavernous nerve. The penis was then harvested and stained with hydroethidine (in situ analysis of superoxide anion), TUNEL, or antibodies to nitrotyrosine (marker of peroxynitrite formation), PECAM-1, smooth muscle alpha-actin, and phospho-eNOS. Penis specimens from a separate group of animals were used for phospho-eNOS and eNOS western blot or cGMP determination. RESULTS Erectile function was significantly less in diabetic groups than in control group. The generation of superoxide anion and nitrotyrosine and the number of apoptotic cells in both cavernous endothelial and smooth muscle cells were significantly higher in diabetic groups than in control group. Cavernous tissue phospho-eNOS and cGMP expression and the number of endothelial and smooth muscle cells were lower in diabetic groups than in control group. Both diabetic models resulted in similar structural and functional derangements in the corpus cavernosum; however, the mortality rate was higher in mice receiving single high-dose of STZ than in those receiving multiple low-doses. CONCLUSION The mouse model of type I diabetes is useful and technically feasible for the study of the pathophysiologic mechanisms involved in diabetic erectile dysfunction.

A Mouse Model of Cavernous Nerve Injury-Induced Erectile Dysfunction: Functional and Morphological Characterization of the Corpus Cavernosum

INTRODUCTION With the advent of genetically engineered mice, it seems important to develop a mouse model of cavernous nerve injury (CNI). AIM To establish a mouse model of CNI induced either by nerve crushing or by neurectomy and to evaluate time-dependent derangements in penile hemodynamics in vivo and subsequent histologic alterations in the cavernous tissue. METHODS Twelve-week-old C57BL/6J mice were divided into 4 groups (N=36 per group): control, sham operation, bilateral cavernous nerve crush, and bilateral cavernous neurectomy group. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Three days and 1, 2, 4, 8, and 12 weeks after CNI, erectile function was measured by electrical stimulation of the cavernous nerve. The penis was then harvested and TUNEL was performed. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed assaying for caspase-3, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), phospho-Smad2, PECAM-1, factor VIII, and smooth muscle α-actin. The numbers of apoptotic cells and phospho-Smad2-immunopositive cells in endothelial cells or smooth muscle cells were counted. RESULTS Erectile function was significantly less in the cavernous nerve crushing and neurectomy groups than in the control or sham group. This difference was observed at the earliest time point assayed (day 3) and persisted up to 4 weeks after nerve crushing and to 12 weeks after neurectomy. The apoptotic index peaked at 1 or 2 weeks after CNI and decreased thereafter. Cavernous TGF-β1 and phospho-Smad expression was also increased after CNI. The numbers of apoptotic cells and phospho-Smad2-immunopositive cells in cavernous endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells were significantly greater in the cavernous nerve crush and cavernous neurectomy groups than in the control or sham group. Conclusion.  The mouse is a useful model for studying pathophysiologic mechanisms involved in erectile dysfunction after CNI. Early intervention to prevent apoptosis in smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells or to inhibit cavernous tissue fibrosis is required to restore erectile function.

Intracavernous Delivery of Synthetic Angiopoietin-1 Protein as a Novel Therapeutic Strategy for Erectile Dysfunction in the Type II Diabetic db/db Mouse

INTRODUCTION Patients with erectile dysfunction (ED) associated with type II diabetes often have impaired endothelial function and tend to respond poorly to oral phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors. Therefore, neovascularization is a promising strategy for curing diabetic ED. AIM To determine the effectiveness of a soluble, stable, and potent angiopoietin-1 (Ang1) variant, cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP)-Ang1, in promoting cavernous angiogenesis and erectile function in a mouse model of type II diabetic ED. Methods.  Sixteen-week-old male db/db mice (in which obesity and type II diabetes are caused by a mutation in the leptin receptor) and control C57BL/6J mice were used and divided into four groups (N=14 per group): age-matched controls; db/db mice receiving two successive intracavernous injections of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (days -3 and 0; 20 µL); db/db mice receiving a single intracavernous injection of COMP-Ang1 protein (day 0; 5.8 µg/20 µL); and db/db mice receiving two successive intracavernous injections of COMP-Ang1 protein (days -3 and 0; 5.8 µg/20 µL). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Two weeks later, erectile function was measured by electrical stimulation of the cavernous nerve. The penis was then harvested and stained with antibodies to platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1) (endothelial cell marker), phosphohistone H3 (PH3, a nuclear protein indicative of cell proliferation), phospho-endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and eNOS. Penis specimens from a separate group of animals were used for cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) quantification. RESULTS Local delivery of COMP-Ang1 protein significantly increased eNOS phosphorylation and cGMP and cAMP expression compared with that in the group treated with PBS. Repeated intracavernous injections of COMP-Ang1 protein completely restored erectile function and cavernous endothelial content through enhanced cavernous neoangiogenesis as evaluated by PECAM-1 and PH3 immunohistochemistry and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling assay, whereas a single injection of COMP-Ang1 protein elicited partial improvement. CONCLUSION Cavernous neovascularization using recombinant Ang1 protein is a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of ED resulting from type II diabetes.

Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)‐β Type I Receptor Kinase (ALK5) Inhibitor Alleviates Profibrotic TGF‐β1 Responses in Fibroblasts Derived from Peyronie's Plaque

INTRODUCTION Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) has been identified as an important fibrogenic cytokine associated with Peyronies disease (PD). AIM The aim of this study was to study the differential expression of the TGF-β1 and Smad transcription factors in plaque tissue from PD patients and to determine the antifibrotic effect of SKI2162 (SK Chemicals, Seoul, South Korea), a novel small-molecule inhibitor of activin receptor-like kinase 5 (ALK5), a type I receptor of TGF-β, in primary fibroblasts derived from human PD plaque. METHODS Plaque tissue was isolated from five PD patients, and tunica albuginea tissue was obtained from four control patients. Plaque tissues from a patient with PD were used for primary fibroblast culture. Fibroblasts were pretreated with SKI2162 (10 µM) and then stimulated with TGF-β1 (10ng/mL). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The plaque or tunica albuginea tissue was stained with Massons trichrome or antibody to TGF-β1, phospho-Smad2 (P-Smad2), and P-Smad3. Protein was extracted from treated fibroblasts for Western blotting, and the membranes were probed with antibody to P-Smad2/Smad2, P-Smad3/Smad3, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, fibronectin, collagen I, and collagen IV. We also determined the inhibitory effect of SKI2162 on TGF-β1-induced nuclear translocation of Smad2/3 in fibroblasts. RESULTS The plaque tissue from PD patients showed higher TGF-β1, P-Smad2, and P-Smad3 immunoreactivity than did the tunica albuginea tissue from control patients. SKI2162 not only blocked TGF-β1-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Smad2 and Smad3, but also inhibited the production of extracellular matrix markers in fibroblasts derived from human PD plaque. CONCLUSION In light of the pivotal role of TGF-β and Smads in the pathogenesis of PD, pharmacologic inhibition of ALK5 may represent a novel targeted approach to treating PD.

Derangements in Endothelial Cell‐to‐Cell Junctions Involved in the Pathogenesis of Hypercholesterolemia‐Induced Erectile Dysfunction

INTRODUCTION Endothelial cell-to-cell junctions are crucial for vascular formation, networking, and remodeling of blood vessels as well as for inducing and integrating intracellular signals. AIM We investigated the differential expression and distribution of endothelial cell-to-cell junction proteins in the penis of mice with hypercholesterolemia-induced erectile dysfunction. METHODS Two-month-old C57BL/6J mice were fed a diet containing 4% cholesterol and 1% cholic acid, and age-matched control animals were fed a normal diet, for 3 months. We performed dual priming oligonucleotide (DPO)-based multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (Seegene, Seoul, Korea) to screen the differential gene expression of 21 endothelial cell-to-cell junctions. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES At 5 months, erectile function was measured by electrical stimulation of the cavernous nerve, and the penis was harvested and stained with antibody to claudin-5, vascular endothelial (VE)-cadherin, and platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM)-1 (N = 8 per group). Cavernous specimens from a separate group of animals were used for claudin-5, VE-cadherin, and PECAM-1 reverse transcriptase-PCR and Western blot analysis. RESULTS Erectile function was significantly lower in hypercholesterolemic mice than in controls. DPO-based multiplex PCR revealed a profound decrease in the gene expression of endothelium-specific cell-to-cell junction proteins, including claudin-5, VE-cadherin, and PECAM-1, in hypercholesterolemic mice compared with that in controls. The expression of claudin-5, VE-cadherin, and PECAM-1 protein evaluated by Western blot or immunohistochemistry was significantly lower in hypercholesterolemic mice than in controls. These endothelial cell-to-cell junction proteins were more sparsely distributed in the endothelium of cavernous sinusoids than in the endothelium of cavernous artery and dorsal blood vessels. CONCLUSION Down-regulation of the endothelial cell-to-cell junctions and decreased endothelial content in the corpus cavernosum might play a major role in the deterioration of erectile function in hypercholesterolemic mice.

Expression of the Apelin–APJ Pathway and Effects on Erectile Function in a Mouse Model of Vasculogenic Erectile Dysfunction

INTRODUCTION Much attention has recently been focused on therapeutic angiogenesis as a treatment for erectile dysfunction (ED). The apelin and apelin receptor (APJ) system is known to cause endothelium-dependent vasodilatation and to be involved in angiogenesis. AIM To examine the differential expression of apelin and APJ in animal models of vasculogenic ED and to determine whether and how enhancement of apelin-APJ signaling restores erectile function in hypercholesterolemic mice. METHODS Acute cavernous ischemia was induced in C57BL/6J mice by bilateral occlusion of internal iliac arteries, and chronic vasculogenic ED was induced by feeding a high-cholesterol diet or by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of apelin and APJ were determined in cavernous tissue of each vasculogenic ED model by semiquantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). We evaluated erectile function by electrical stimulation of the cavernous nerve in hypercholesterolemic mice 1, 3, 7, and 14 days after a single intracavernous injection of apelin protein (5 μg/20 μL). The penis was harvested for histologic examinations and Western blot analysis. RESULTS The cavernous mRNA expression of apelin and APJ was up-regulated in acute ischemia model and down-regulated in chronic vasculogenic ED models. A significant restoration of erectile function was noted 1 day after injection of apelin protein into the penis of hypercholesterolemic mice; however, erectile function returned to baseline values thereafter. The beneficial effects of apelin on erectile function resulted mainly from an activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and increase in nitric oxide bioavailability through reduction in reactive oxygen species-mediated endothelial apoptosis rather than through direct endothelial cell proliferation. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that apelin-APJ signaling is a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of vasculogenic ED. Further studies are needed to develop a potent agonist for APJ and to determine the role of repeated dosing of apelin on long-term recovery of erectile function.