C. Almekinders

Collaboration of farmers and breeders: Participatory crop improvement in perspective

Participatory Crop Improvement (PCI) has developed over the past decade as an alternative and complementary breeding approach to Formal Crop Improvement (FCI). In that context, PCI principally aims at more effectively addressing the needs of farmers in marginal areas in developing countries. This paper describes the rationale behind the emerging of the PCI-concept, the first experiences, and its place in a development-context. The relation with in situ conservation of plant genetic resources is briefly described. The paper uses the distinction in PCI between PVS (Participatory Varietal Selection, i.e. participatory selection among varieties and advanced materials) and PPB (Participatory Plant Breeding, i.e. selection within segregating materials). While successful experiences of PVS are reported, the potentials of PPB are still to be explored. Among other issues, this article pays attention to Genotype x Environment interaction: while G × E interaction is recognised as an important issue in plant breeding and a justification for PCI, the implications for the design of selection systems with farmer participation, and, eventually the potential of PPB has only been analysed to a limited extend. Questions in relation to materials, breeding strategies and selection procedures to achieve sufficient progress in the different crops and environments are identified; these will however remain unanswered until more experiences from the field are available.

Genetic diversity and population structure of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) landraces from the East African highlands

The East African highlands are a region of important common bean production and high varietal diversity for the crop. The objective of this study was to uncover the diversity and population structure of 192 landraces from Ethiopia and Kenya together with four genepool control genotypes using morphological phenotyping and microsatellite marker genotyping. The germplasm represented different common bean production ecologies and seed types common in these countries. The landraces showed considerable diversity that corresponded well to the two recognized genepools (Andean and Mesoamerican) with little introgression between these groups. Mesoamerican genotypes were predominant in Ethiopia while Andean genotypes were predominant in Kenya. Within each country, landraces from different collection sites were clustered together indicating potential gene flow between regions within Kenya or within Ethiopia. Across countries, landraces from the same country of origin tended to cluster together indicating distinct germplasm at the national level and limited gene flow between the two countries highlighting divided social networks within the regions and a weak trans-national bean seed exchange especially for landrace varieties. One exception to this may be the case of small red-seeded beans where informal cross-border grain trade occurs. We also observed that genetic divergence was slightly higher for the Ethiopian landraces compared to Kenyan landraces and that Mesoamerican genotypes were more diverse than the Andean genotypes. Common beans in eastern Africa are often cultivated in marginal, risk-prone farming systems and the observed landrace diversity should provide valuable alleles for adaptation to stressful environments in future breeding programs in the region.

Encouraging diversity : the conservation and development of plant genetic resources

This book presents around 80 briefly described cases which illuminate accumulated experience in plant genetic resources in both the South and the North. These experiences illustrate the apparent conflict between crop conservation and development, and contribute to the understanding of opportunities that are offered by new approaches and activities in this field. Similarities between problems in the South and the North are apparent. The authors analyse the experiences and perspectives of genebanks, plant breeders, seed programmes and NGOs involved in crop development and conservation. They place them in the context of new approaches in local and global Plant Genetic Resource (PGR) management by both the formal and informal sector. The last part of the book describes the next step in the debate around PGR management. It discusses the implications of integrated and adaptive management approaches in PGR management and forecasts the concepts to be used and institutional organization required to bring about changes which can resist the pressure which farmers and processionals in PGR management face as a consequence of a range of external forces. It presents a very diverse and rich array of experiences of conservationists, breeders, seed producers and NGOs in relation to crop conservation and development.

Can cultivars from participatory plant breeding improve seed provision to small-scale farmers?

Seed provision for small-scale farmers deals with multiple constraints. These include, on the supply side, high seed production costs and poor adaptedness of the cultivars, and on the demand side, anticyclical demand and low and variable sales. Approaches to improve seed provision to this sector of farmers have so far not been very successful. This paper discusses how well-adapted cultivars developed through participatory plant breeding (PPB) initiatives create new opportunities for production and distribution of quality seed. It reviews supply and demand-side issues, based on research and experiences with seed production. Given better adaptation of PPB-cultivars, the diffusion of seed of PPB initiatives should not be a major bottleneck. But constraints in the provision of quality seed from cultivars that are commonly used remain and need to be addressed. Major points of attention are cost-effective seed production and distribution, high information linked transaction costs, and appropriate seed production technology. Research on these issues is needed to understand farmers’ seed demand. At the same time, these issues need to be taken into account in new seed production initiatives that apply integrated approaches. Long term commitment by farmers to produce, distribute and use seeds is a condition. Even if seed production is not economically sustainable at household or organization level, farmer-based seed systems generate benefits to society as a whole that justify long term public investment to maintain them.

Farmers’ participation and breeding for durable disease resistance in the Andean region

In the Andean region, the Preduza project and its partners combined breeding for durable disease resistance using locally adapted cultivars and farmer participatory methods. The approach taken resembles participatory variety selection (PVS). Farmers participated in the selection of advanced materials, rather than finished cultivars. This paper describes this approach and reports experiences with farmers–breeders collaboration.As breeders involved farmers as participants, they learned more about the most important criteria of male and female farmers for preferred cultivars in the marginal environments of Andean cropping systems. This approach encouraged the use of locally adapted cultivars (often landraces), made the breeders less dependent on foreign materials, and has resulted in selection and development of new wheat, barley, common bean, quinoa, potato and maize cultivars.Breeding programmes based on crossing locally adapted cultivars followed by selection by the breeders in the early phases of the breeding programmes and by participatory selection with the farmers in the more advanced stages of the breeding programmes appeared successful. It became clear that breeders must be well acquainted with the farmer preferences such as the requirements for specific agronomic, storage, processing and marketing traits.Over a period of five years the centralized formal breeding approach predominantly based on material produced by the international institutes was replaced by decentralized breeding approaches based largely on local germplasm with extensive farmer participation.

Mechanisms Explaining Variety Naming by Farmers and Name Consistency of Rice Varieties in The Gambia

Mechanisms Explaining Variety Naming by Farmers and Name Consistency of Rice Varieties in The Gambia. Understanding variety naming by farmers is important for better understanding crop genetic diversity in farmer fields and its management by farmers. This paper describes variety naming of rice by farmers in The Gambia and presents mechanisms that explain naming diversity and consistency. Three types of variety names can be distinguished, referring to common old varieties, common new varieties, and uncommon varieties. Interview and plant data suggest that variety exchange affects variety naming within villages. As a result, variety names give information on the period of time a variety is used in a village, and on the flow of varieties between and within villages. Name consistency within and between villages results from and illuminates the dynamics of variety exchange within and between villages.

Can conventional breeding programmes provide onion varieties that are suitable for organic farming in the Netherlands

Main stream commercial onion breeders do not select varieties for organic farming, but solely for conventional farming. Seed companies consider the organic market too small to justify investments in breeding for this sector. In order to study if their varieties also suit organic farmers’ needs we interviewed four Dutch commercial onion breeders on their breeding programme and selection criteria and compared the outcome with a variety profile composed of the priority traits of Dutch organic farmers. Breeders gave priority to the same storage and bulb quality traits that are demanded by organic farmers, because organic onions are exported to conventional supermarkets that apply the same quality standards to organic and conventional onions. However, organic farmers also need varieties that perform well in the field. Breeders give low priority to field selection. Furthermore, three of the four seed companies only breed hybrids. The cytoplasmic male sterility system used to produce these hybrids does not comply with organic principles. We conclude that at present breeders can provide varieties that meet organic farmers’ demands for storability and quality traits, but they should give higher priority to field selection to also improve required field traits. The latter will only occur, if in future the organic seed market will grow. If the organic sector wants varieties developed according to its own principles, it should either set up its own onion breeding programme or seek alliances with breeding companies that are prepared to harmonize their breeding methodology with the organic principles.

Comparison of methods to identify crop productivity constraints in developing countries. A review

Selecting a method for identifying actual crop productivity constraints is an important step for triggering innovation processes. Applied methods can be diverse and although such methods have consequences for the design of intervention strategies, documented comparisons between various methods are scarce. Different variables can be used to characterize these methods. To typify them, we used two of these variables in a heuristic model: control over the research process and represented opinion. Here, we review 16 published papers that present outcomes of different methods to identify productivity constraints. The major findings are the following: (1) Variation in methods is wide. (2) Applying the heuristic model results in three main clusters of methods: farmer-control/farmer-opinion, scientist-control/scientist-opinion, and scientist-control/farmer-opinion. (3) These clusters are scale level dependent. As a follow up, we compared in a case study the three different methods, representative for the three main clusters of the heuristic model, in order to assess their congruency. These methods (focus group discussion, individual surveys, and contextual data collection) were applied in four localities in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. We found that congruency between the methods, as indicated by Spearman-ρ correlations, was not significant. In addition, we found that outcomes of individual surveys and contextual data collection among the different locations were correlated (R > 0.70). No such correlation was found using focus group discussion. Both findings indicate that for a specific location different methods yielded different constraints and that variability between the locations is not reflected by using individual surveys and contextual data collection. Combined the review and case study demonstrate that process control and represented opinion have a manifest impact on generated outcomes. Because outcomes of productivity constraints assessments are methodology dependent, researchers are recommended to justify a priori their choice of method using the presented heuristic model.

Understanding farmers’ potato production practices and use of improved varieties in Chencha, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT This study was carried out to better understand non-adoption of improved varieties of potato (Solanum tuberosum) and associated technologies by smallholder farmers in Chencha, Ethiopia. Data were collected through a survey (n = 47) and in-depth interviews (n = 20). It shows how wealth status was a factor of major importance. Most wealthy and some medium-wealthy farmers adopted improved potato varieties and many of the improved production practices; they had access to seed, associated knowledge and support, and sufficient resources that were necessary to apply the improved practices. Non-adoption was common among many medium-wealthy and most poor farmers: they lacked—next to access to the technologies and knowledge—cash, land, and labor. Results indicated the need to rethink research and intervention efforts. Next to paying attention to differences in the access to technology and the related knowledge, there is a need to consider the variation in technology needs, supporting microcredit services, and room to experiment. As a result, different combinations of improved production practices may be adopted.

TRACING THE SEED: SEED DIFFUSION OF IMPROVED POTATO VARIETIES THROUGH FARMERS’ NETWORKS IN CHENCHA, ETHIOPIA

There are many prerequisites for potato production to meet its full potential as a food security crop for subsistence farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. One of these is the introduction of improved varieties. Traditionally, the introduction of new varieties is by government agencies or Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). To understand the diffusion of seed tubers (seeds) of new potato varieties in farmer networks, we analysed social factors influencing the sharing of seed of improved potato varieties amongst farmers in Chencha, Ethiopia. We interviewed 166 farmers and analysed 146 seed transactions. We used seed flow mapping to visualize seed sharing amongst farmers. We found that the social networks of farmers are differentiated by wealth, gender and religion, and that this differentiation affects the dispersion of new varieties through the farming communities: Wealthier farmers shared seed tubers most frequently and poor farmers did not share seed at all. Seed sharing was influenced by, but not restricted to, gender and religion categories. Most sharing was with relatives (as gifts) and neighbours (in exchange for labour). There weas no equal access to seed for all households because of (i) the targeting of the better off farmers by the NGO (ii) differences in frequency of sharing and (iii) terms and motivation of the transactions. Our results show that wealthy farmers most effectively multiply and share the seed of new varieties with medium wealthy and poor farmers. This study shows that for the introduction of new technologies into a community, its dynamics of social differentiation need to be understood.