C Brand Wessels

The structural grading of young South African grown Pinus patula sawn timber

In this study sawn timber from 16- to 20-year-old Pinus patula trees were obtained from a wide variety of sites along the Mpumalanga escarpment in South Africa. The objectives of this study were to assess the efficiency of the current visual and mechanical grading rules on this timber and to evaluate the potential of some indicator properties to be used as structural grading parameters on this resource. A large number of non-destructive measurements were performed on all samples (i.e. X-ray density scanning, acoustic frequency measurement, year-ring measurements and stiffness measurement) before it was destructively tested in bending and tension. The young P. patula timber tested in this study had good bending strength (MOR) properties with higher characteristic grade values than required. The timber, however, had low stiffness and did not comply with the SANS 10163-1 requirements for mean modulus of elasticity on edge (MOEedge) for any of the structural grades. Dynamic MOE (MOEdyn), calculated from acoustic frequency tests on the timber, was found to be the best single predictor of MOEedge, MOR and tension strength. Multiple regression analysis showed that a combination of MOEdyn, density and knot parameters can be used to improve the predictability of some of the strength and stiffness characteristics of the timber.

Variation in strength, stiffness and related wood properties in young South African-grown Pinus patula

The objective of this study was to examine the variation in and intercorrelation among wood properties determining the suitability of 16- to 20-year-old South African-grown Pinus patula trees for structural timber. A total of 1 112 sawn boards from 340 logs, 170 trees and 17 different compartments were examined. Sawlogs were taken from two height levels from each tree. The mean modulus of elasticity measured on edge (MOEedge) was far below, and the mean twist higher than the limits set for structural grade softwood timber in South Africa. All the desirable properties for structural timber improved with distance from the pith with the exception of the fifth percentile value for modulus of rupture (MOR), which was higher at the pith than for the boards processed adjacent to the pith. Boards processed from the lower part of the stem were superior in most of the important properties compared to the properties higher up in the stem. The correlation between the dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOEdyn) and MOR of boards processed from the logs taken higher up in the stem was much weaker than in the case of the boards processed from the log taken from the lower part in the stem, suggesting that indirect (non-destructive) prediction of MOR decreased in reliability with increase in height in trees. A relatively strong negative correlation was found between the mean growth ring widths of the pith boards and the mean MOEdyn values per compartment, suggesting that slower initial growth in a compartment resulted in increased mean stiffness of boards from that compartment.

The variation of microfibril angle in South African grown Pinus patula and its influence on the stiffness of structural lumber

Reduction in the rotation ages of softwood saw-log plantations in South Africa is causing increased proportions of low stiffness sawn lumber at final harvest. It has been shown for some species that the microfibril angle (MFA) of the S2 layer of tracheids is strongly related to the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of wood, even more so than wood density, especially in wood formed during juvenile growth. The objectives of this study were to describe the variation in MFA in young Pinus patula trees and to determine the relationship between MFA and the dynamic MOE of sawn P. patula lumber. Thirty 16- to 20-year-old trees from six compartments from the Mpumalanga escarpment were processed into discs and lumber. The MFA, density and ring width were measured at two height levels using Silviscan 3. The average annual ring MFA varied between 7° and 29°; the pattern of variation depended mainly on height level and the ring number from the pith. The MFA in P. patula followed the same within-tree variation trends as in New Zealand-grown Pinus radiata but the average MFA was lower in absolute terms and differences between height levels were less pronounced. The MFA and density exhibited highly significant Pearson correlations of 0.73 and 0.70, respectively, with board dynamic MOE. A multiple regression model, which included MFA, density and ring width, explained 71% of the variation in the dynamic MOE of boards. A sensitivity analysis on the model showed that MFA and density had approximately similar influences on predicting the dynamic MOE of Pinus patula boards.

Survival and long-term growth of eucalypts on semi-arid sites in a Mediterranean climate, South Africa§

Four experiments were established on the semi-arid west coast plain of South Africa during the 1990s. The trails tested the survival and growth of several eucalypt species and hybrids, some of which were established in a climate that is drier than their natural distribution range. The aridity indices (AI; defined as mean annual precipitation [MAP]/mean annual potential evapotranspiration) ranged from 0.21 to 0.36 and MAP from 228 to 423 mm. The driest trial site (AI = 0.21 and MAP = 228) had high levels of mortality. However, a number of species (in particular, Eucalyptus gomphocephala, E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis, as well as individual hybrids of the latter two species with E. grandis) survived and grew well at the remaining sites. Eucalyptus cladocalyx survived well and attained competitive growth rates only on the wettest site in the group (AI = 0.36). The dominant height of the top-performing genotypes at age 5 ranged between 9 and 10 m on the two wetter sites. This corresponded to mean annual increment values in excess of 10 m3 ha−1 a−1, which is comparable to volume obtained at more favourable aridity indices in the summer rainfall zone of South Africa and exceeds the growth rates obtained in several other arid zone studies globally. The E. grandis × E. camaldulensis hybrid ranked among the top performers in two trials, but its susceptibility to recently introduced pests and relatively poor wood quality makes it a less attractive choice for planting. The high density and durability of timber, acceptable growth rate (given the low rainfall conditions), and low pest and disease incidence make E. gomphocephala and E. cladocalyx the species of choice for planting in the drier and relatively wetter sections of the semi-arid zone, respectively.

Determining optimal primary sawing and ripping machine settings in the wood manufacturing chain

for wood manufacturers around the world, the single biggest cost factor is known to be its raw material. Maximum volume recovery of this raw material is, therefore, of key importance for the industry. The wood products industry consists of several interrelated manufacturing steps for converting trees into logs and logs into finished lumber. Each operation usually optimises its functionality in isolation from the preceding and following operations. It is a well documented fact that the optimisation of decisions through the whole chain of operations is considerably more profitable than the optimisation of individual operations. The objective of this study was to determine the optimal machine settings for two interrelated operations, namely the sawing and ripping operations which have tradition‑ ally been optimised individually. A model, having two decision variables, was developed which aims to satisfy market demand at a minimal cost. The first decision was how to saw the log supply into different thicknesses by choosing specific sawing patterns. The second was to decide on a rip saws priority value settings, which determines how the products from the primary sawing operation are ripped into products of a certain thickness and width. The techniques used to determine the machine settings included static simulation with the SIMSAW software to represent the sawing operation and mixed integer programming to model the ripping operation. A metaheuristic, namely the Population Based Incremental Learning algorithm, was used to link the simulation and mixed integer models and to determine the optimal settings for the combined process. The models objective function was to minimise the cost of production. This cost included the raw material waste cost and the over or under production cost. The over production cost included the stock keeping costs and the under production cost was estimated as the buy‑in cost of under supplied products from another wood supplier. The model performed well against current decision software available, namely the Sawmill Production Planning System package, which combines simulation and mixed integer programming techniques to maximise profit. The model added further value by modelling and determining the ripping priority settings in addition to the primary sawing patterns.

The potential of young, green finger-jointed Eucalyptus grandis lumber for roof truss manufacturing

South Africa is a timber-scarce country that will most probably experience a shortage of structural softwood lumber in the near future. In this study the concept of using young, green finger-jointed Eucalyptus grandis lumber was evaluated for possible application in roof truss structures while the timber is still in the green, unseasoned state. Drying will occur naturally while the lumber is fixed within the roof truss structure. The objectives of this study were (1) to investigate the strength and stiffness variation of the finger-jointed E. grandis product in both the green and dry state for different age and dimension lumber, (2) to investigate the variation in density, warp and checking in the lumber when dried in a simulated roof-space environment and (3) to evaluate the potential of this finger-jointed product as a component in roof truss structures. Green finger-jointed E. grandis lumber of ages 5, 11 and 18 years and dimensions 48×73 mm and 36×111 mm from Limpopo province were evaluated. The study showed that the young finger-jointed E. grandis timber had very good flexural, tensile parallel to grain, and shear properties in both the green and dry state. The mean and characteristic modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture values of the finger-jointed E. grandis product were higher and the variation lower in comparison to currently used South African pine sources. The tensile perpendicular to grain and compression perpendicular to grain strength did not conform to SANS requirements for the lowest structural grade (S5). Both tree age and product dimension were sources for variation in the physical and strength properties. Based on the results from this study the concept of producing roof trusses from green, finger-jointed young E. grandis timber has potential.

Sustainability and wood constructions: a review of green building rating systems and life-cycle assessment methods from a South African and developing world perspective

ABSTRACTThis study reviews, from a South African and developing world perspective, green building rating tools and life-cycle assessment methods with a focus on wood constructions. Based on existing studies, it seems as if the well documented environmental benefits of using wood is not sufficiently reflected in the green building rating systems reviewed. Although life-cycle-assessment is recognized as the best way to holistically evaluate the environmental impacts of a building, it is resource intensive, can be highly complex, and is dependent on the availability of accurate data. The life-cycle assessment research results on which green building rating tools were based, were mostly from colder, northern hemisphere developed countries. This might result in an over-emphasis on the operating energy requirements of buildings at the expense of embodied energy and the importance of material choices. We therefore conclude that there is a critical need for local life cycle assessment based research in South Afri...

Increased planting density as a means for improving Pinus elliottii lumber stiffness

Faster growth and reduced harvesting ages are causing a reduction in the stiffness of lumber from South African grown pine plantations. The objective of this study was to determine whether increased planting densities of Pinus elliottii would result in improved stiffness of its sawn lumber and whether it would affect other relevant lumber properties. Four planting density treatments (403, 1 097, 1 808, and 2 981 stems ha−1) of a 12-year-old experimental spacing trial were processed into lumber. The static modulus of elasticity (MOEstat), modulus of rupture (MOR), warp, knot properties and density of the lumber were measured for 172 boards. Results showed that the planting density had a significant effect on the MOEstat of the lumber. The higher mean MOEstat (up to 27% increases) of lumber from densely planted trees seems to be the result of the higher slenderness and the slower diameter growth of these trees. Planting density also had a significant effect on the twist, knot area ratio and the number of knots per board. The magnitude of the effect on each of these properties, however, was relatively low.

Sawn-timber and kraft pulp properties of Pinus elliottii × Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis and Pinus patula × Pinus tecunumanii hybrids and their parental species

A study was undertaken to evaluate the quality of the timber produced by Pinus elliottii × Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis (PECH) and the Pinus patula × Pinus tecunumanii low elevation (PPTL) and high elevation (PPTH) hybrids and their parent species for both kraft pulp and sawn-timber production. Trees were taken from unthinned tree improvement trials managed for pulpwood, ranging in age between 15 and 19 years. All sawn boards produced by study trees met the minimum wood density requirement for S5-grade structural timber (360 kg m−3), but approximately 17% of the boards failed to meet the other requirements for the grade, largely due to knot-related defects. Results of dynamic modulus of elasticity assessments performed on all of the boards suggested that a large percentage of boards would not meet the specified average stiffness (7 800 MPa). This was confirmed by the results of static bending tests performed on a subsample of boards. All boards tested for all species and hybrids met the required fifth percentile bending strength value for grade S7 (15.8 MPa) according to SANS 6122 (2008) specifications. The kraft pulping results indicated that the samples taken from the upper part of the stem yielded slightly better results on average than the samples representing the whole tree with respect to uniformity in the kappa vs charge and temperature, and yield vs kappa traits, with slight improvement of pulp yield (52% vs 50%) and some strength properties compared with whole tree pulping. Samples from the upper part of the stem had a close delignification rate in the 60–80 kappa range. The delignification rate for PPTL in the 60–80 kappa range was slower and the yield was slightly lower than P. patula (53.17% vs 52.72%) despite a higher kappa number. The pulp strengths short-span compressive test, breaking length and tearing strength of PECH were similar to those of P. elliottii, which were in turn generally lower than those of P. patula. The pulp strengths of PPTL and PPTH were similar to those of P. patula, whereas P. caribaea strengths were intermediate between those of P. patula and P. elliottii. With the exception of a slightly lower pulp yield, PPTL emerged as the best all-round hybrid for both pulp and sawn-timber properties.

A method for three-dimensional stem analysis and its application in a study on the occurrence of resin pockets in Pinus patula

Information on the external shape, internal properties and defects of a tree is important for the forest and wood-processing industries. Resin pockets are internal defects, associated with some softwood species, and are especially undesirable in furniture, joinery and veneer products. In this study, we propose a new lower-cost method for measuring tree shape and macroscopic internal characteristics. The objectives of this study were to: (1) design, construct and test a mobile system that can be used in field to obtain a three-dimensional model of a log or tree stem indicating selected macroscopic internal characteristics and (2) to use the system to investigate the occurrence and causes of resin pockets in Pinus patula from the Mpumalanga escarpment in South Africa. In order to establish the cause of resin pocket formation in Pinus patula, four 3-m logs from 24 trees from three compartments were dissected and digitally reconstructed into three-dimensional models. The results from the study suggest that the formation of Type 1 resin pockets in Pinus patula was due to bending stresses caused by wind sway. It was not possible to establish with certainty the cause of Type 2 resin pocket formation. However, there was evidence that damage events, and specifically thinning damage, have been the cause of some of the Type 2 resin pockets observed.