C. Devendra

Crop–animal interactions in mixed farming systems in Asia

Abstract The integration of crop and animal production is well developed in the farming systems of Asia, particularly those in small-scale agriculture. There is marked complementarity in resource use in these systems, with inputs from one sector being supplied to others. Specific examples of the main crop–animal interactions are given for different countries, and reference is made to the results of a number of case studies. These have demonstrated the important contribution that animals make to increased production, income generation, and the improved sustainability of annual and perennial cropping systems.

Smallholder farming systems in Asia

Abstract Agricultural production in Asia emphasises intensive rice and wheat production. Other systems are associated with maize, cassava, trees and a range of secondary crops. Both monoculture and multiple cropping systems are common, with crops being grown for subsistence and cash. Irrigated agriculture is well developed in high potential areas, but most countries are still heavily dependent on rain-fed production systems. In Southeast Asia, shifting cultivation is practised widely and is associated with deforestation, weed invasion and erosion. Multi-purpose livestock are integrated with cropping in small-scale, mixed farming systems that characterise Asian agriculture.

Availability and use of feed resources in crop–animal systems in Asia

Abstract Feed resources and nutrition constitute the principal technical constraints to ruminant production in Asia. Four main categories of feed resources are potentially available for use in smallholder crop–animal systems. These are pastures (native and improved grasses, herbaceous legumes and multi-purpose trees), crop residues, agro-industrial by-products (AIBPs), and non-conventional feed resources (NCFRs). Priorities for the use of crop residues in terms of nutrient potential and animal species are indicated. Of the technologies developed to improve the nutritive value of crop residues, more attention has been given to chemical treatment of cereal straws than to supplementation. However, a failure to demonstrate cost-effectiveness has discouraged on-farm adoption. The production of fodder from food crop systems and the establishment of multi-purpose trees and shrubs are potentially important for insuring adequate feed supplies for ruminants and improving soil fertility, but there has been limited adoption on small farms to date. Equally, there is significant potential for the more effective use of locally-produced AIBPs and NCFRs, all of which are under-utilised currently.

Crop-animal systems in Asia: future perspectives

Abstract In the next two decades, the demand for animal products will more than double. The concluding paper provides some considered predictions on the future for crop-animal systems in Asia, as a consequence of this trend. Although meat and eggs from non-ruminants in industrial systems will continue to be the main source of animal proteins, it is unlikely that these systems will meet all of the projected demands. The consumption of ruminant meat and milk is increasing in most of Asia, and 95% of ruminants are found in the mixed farming systems. Whilst involution of mixed farming systems is one possible scenario, particularly in the highly populated tropical highlands, it is the opinion of the authors that crop-animal systems will see important growth and remain the dominant system in Asia. Mixed farming systems will continue to be the main avenue for intensification of food production, with some specialisation in crop or animal activities. In addition to providing products such as meat, milk and eggs, domestic animals will continue to enhance the natural resources base. Nevertheless, there are some environmental concerns related to land quality, in terms of erosion and soil fertility, and animal biodiversity.

Crop–animal systems in Asia: importance of livestock and characterisation of agro-ecological zones

Abstract Crop–animal systems, in which livestock play a multi-purpose role, are the backbone of Asian agriculture. In the future, increased productivity from livestock will be necessary in these systems to meet the increased demand for animal products, to alleviate poverty and to improve the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers. Agriculture in the region is characterised by diverse and complex production systems, which reflect the wide range of physical environments. In Southeast Asia, the main agro-ecological zones are characterised by humid/sub-humid climates, whilst those in South Asia are arid/semi-arid. Irrigated agriculture is well developed in high potential areas but, with the exception of Pakistan, the countries still depend heavily on rain-fed production systems. Most soils are of low fertility and some, such as the vertisols, present management problems. The natural vegetation consists of forests and native grasslands, with the latter more common in South Asia. Land degradation is a major concern and threatens the sustainability of the farming systems.

Small Farm Systems to Feed Hungry Asia

Small farms are an integral part of Asian agriculture. They are characterized by the preponderance and emphasis on mixed crop–animals systems across a variety of agroecological zones. Mixed farming is the backbone of agriculture, many categories of which are models of diversification, efficiency and resilience in Asia. In global terms, small farms in Asia account for an estimated 87% of all farms of under two hectares of land. About 52% of these farms have <1 ha, with the smallest sizes (0.3–0.6 ha) being found in China, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. There are three types of small farms: in irrigated areas, rainfed zones and plantation agriculture. The first category greatly benefited from policy support and massive resource inputs through the‘green revolution’, while the second was bypassed by it, but continues to produce the bulk of the ruminant meats and milk. The third type remains neglected. The rural poor are mainly small farmers and landless agricultural labourers; their characteristics are described in detail. Irrespective of their various definitions, the key descriptors are deprivation, subsistence, illiteracy, survival, and because of globalization, vulnerability. Data from various sources indicate some key features concerning Asian agriculture: about 83% of the agricultural area is rainfed; between 51% and 55% of the total population of cattle and goats is found here; and about 59–60% of poor livestock keepers are found on mixed farms. The development of small farms in rainfed environments is a priority for the future and affirmative action is imperative. The strategies for development include the promotion of animal production as the entry point for food production and total factor productivity; integrated use of natural resources; improved feeding and nutrition; interdisciplinary, participatory and holistic approaches to address system constraints; and strengthening access to information and delivery systems. Effective policies are urgently required to spur this initiative; these should include development policy for small farm systems; intensifying the role of animals in integrated systems; improved rural–urban marketing linkages, infrastructure and communications. The development pathways include needs-based intensification of animal production systems; improving diversification with the appropriate mix of animals that can be integrated with annual and perennial crops; ensuring access to improved technologies and markets; strengthening empowerment; promotion of cooperatives and agri-business; and sustained pro-poor initiatives to reduce poverty and hunger that are consistent with income growth, socioeconomic benefits, improved livelihoods and self-reliance.

Crop-animal systems in Asia: implications for research

Abstract The importance of crop–animal systems in Asia, the multiple roles played by animals and the opportunities for increasing their contribution to these systems justifies continued research effort. An assessment of the role of livestock in mixed farming systems in 14 countries has identified priority systems, technical constraints and weaknesses in the national organisations. Future research needs to focus on the rain-fed production systems, where most of the livestock are found. There is an overriding need for a farming systems perspective to the research agendas that involves inter-disciplinarity and community-based participation. Such an approach will be more complex, require concentrated effort and more efficient resource use, but will be associated with considerable benefits due to a greater integration of effort.