C. H. Wearing

Potential of Mass Trapping for Long-Term Pest Management and Eradication of Invasive Species

Abstract Semiochemical-based pest management programs comprise three major approaches that are being used to provide environmentally friendly control methods of insect pests: mass trapping, “lure and kill,” and mating disruption. In this article, we review the potential of mass trapping in long-term pest management as well as in the eradication of invasive species. We discuss similarities and differences between mass trapping and other two main approaches of semiochemical-based pest management programs. We highlight several study cases where mass trapping has been used either in long-term pest management [e.g., codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.); pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders); bark beetles, palm weevils, corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp.); and fruit flies] or in eradication of invasive species [e.g., gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.); and boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman). We list the critical issues that affect the efficacy of mass trapping and compare these with previously published models developed to investigate mass trapping efficacy in pest control. We conclude that mass trapping has good potential to suppress or eradicate low-density, isolated pest populations; however, its full potential in pest management has not been adequately realized and therefore encourages further research and development of this technology.

Potential of “Lure and Kill” in Long-Term Pest Management and Eradication of Invasive Species

ABSTRACT “Lure and kill” technology has been used for several decades in pest management and eradication of invasive species. In lure and kill, the insect pest attracted by a semiochemical lure is not “entrapped” at the source of the attractant as in mass trapping, but instead the insect is subjected to a killing agent, which eliminates affected individuals from the population after a short period. In past decades, a growing scientific literature has been published on this concept. This article provides the first review on the potential of lure and kill in long-term pest management and eradication of invasive species. We present a summary of lure and kill, either when used as a stand-alone control method or in combination with other methods. We discuss its efficacy in comparison with other control methods. Several case studies in which lure and kill has been used with the aims of long-term pest management (e.g., pink bollworm, Egyptian cotton leafworm, codling moth, apple maggot, biting flies, and bark beetles) or the eradication of invasive species (e.g., tephritid fruit flies and boll weevils) are provided. Subsequently, we identify essential knowledge required for successful lure and kill programs that include lure competitiveness with natural odor source; lure density; lure formulation and release rate; pest population density and risk of immigration; and biology and ecology of the target species. The risks associated with lure and kill, especially when used in the eradication programs, are highlighted. We comment on the cost-effectiveness of this technology and its strengths and weaknesses, and list key reasons for success and failure. We conclude that lure and kill can be highly effective in controlling small, low-density, isolated populations, and thus it has the potential to add value to long-term pest management. In the eradication of invasive species, lure and kill offers a major advantage in effectiveness by its being inverse density dependent and it provides some improvements in efficacy over related control methods. However, the inclusion of insecticides or sterilants in lure and kill formulations presents a major obstacle to public acceptance.

Ecological impact of three pest management systems in New Zealand apple orchards

Abstract Three apple pest-management regimes are being compared for their ecological impacts, and their ability to ensure the economic production of high-quality apples. Species diversity, pest status and fruit quality are being evaluated under: (i) conventional, (ii) integrated, and (iii) biological fruit production systems. The conventional system follows current export orchard practices with broad-spectrum pesticides, and the integrated system uses a wider range of control methods, including minimal spray applications, preferably of selective pesticides. The biological system uses mating disruption for codling moth (at one site), Bacillus thuringiensis for leafrollers, copper/slaked lime for diseases, and matting or mulches for weed control. Conventional production results in few insects being present during the season and little damage at harvest, but increasing insecticide resistance problems and changing market requirements put the sustainability of this system in doubt. In the integrated system, excellent control of Lepidoptera has been achieved using tebufenozide, with little effect on natural enemies. Further development of the system is needed, but the economics appear favourable for producing export-quality fruit in future. In the biological system, the lack of effective controls for key quarantine pests limits economic sustainability and largely restricts production to the local market. The future of this system for export production depends on innovative technology to overcome these problems.

Worldwide Host Plants of the Highly Polyphagous, Invasive Epiphyas postvittana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

ABSTRACT The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a highly successful biological invader. It was accidentally introduced to several countries including New Zealand, Hawaii, England, and California. Light brown apple moth attacks a wide range of crop plants and other woody and herbaceous plants, but a more comprehensive analysis of its host range is needed for risk assessments, to evaluate the likely economic and environmental impacts, and to enable targeting of particular plant species for detection surveys and treatments. We reviewed and synthesized the host range and host selection behavior of light brown apple moth by using information from Australia and invaded countries. The host range of light brown apple moth is determined by the behavior of both adult females and larvae. Females use visual, chemical and physical cues to choose host plants. Larvae are capable of limited active dispersal by walking and longer range dispersal by ballooning on silken strands; therefore, larvae also may need to select host plants. We review larval performance indicators across a range of plants. Based on our review, there are at least 545 plant species in 363 genera from 121 families that have been reported as hosts of light brown apple moth. Some plants were reported only once and need verification. Nevertheless, many host plant species and their wide phylogenetic range (from ferns to higher dicotyledons) indicates that light brown apple moth is one of the most polyphagous insects known. This information and our categorization of frequency of host use are valuable for incursion response and pest management activities.

A temperature-dependent model for predicting release rates of pheromone from a polyethylene tubing dispenser

A model was developed to describe release of two formulations of tetradecenyl acetates in Shin Etsu polyethylene tubing pheromone dispensers. Change in pheromone column length in the polyethylene tubing was modeled bydl/dt=l ... (a+bT)/dt (wherel is column length,t is time interval, andT is average temperature for that time interval). Regression of the natural log of relative change in liquid length against time interval and accumulated day degrees in orchards produced the coefficientsa andb. The model was validated by comparing predicted and actual liquid length remaining in field-aged dispensers, as well as measuring release rates by using gas chromatography. Mean daily orchard temperatures and measurement of column length of dispensers on a single date were used to accurately predict column length within 15%, after six months. Predictions of instantaneous release rate were also made from this model, and other possible model uses and limitations are discussed.

Past, Present, and Future of Integrated Control of Apple Pests: The New Zealand Experience

This review describes the New Zealand apple industrys progression from 1960s integrated pest control research to todays comprehensive integrated pest management system. With the exception of integrated mite control implemented during the 1980s, pest control on apple crops was dominated by intensive organophosphate insecticide regimes to control tortricid leafrollers. Multiple pest resistances to these insecticides by the 1990s, and increasing consumer demand for lower pesticide residues on fruit, led to the implementation of integrated fruit production. This substantially eliminated organophosphate insecticide use by 2001, replacing it with pest monitoring systems, threshold-based selective insecticides, and biological control. More recently, new demands for ultralow-residue fruit have increased the adoption of mating disruption and use of biological insecticides. Widespread adoption of selective pest management has substantially reduced the status of previously important pests, including leafrollers, mealybugs, leafhoppers, and mites for improved phytosanitary performance, and contributed to major reductions in total insecticide use.