C. Hille

State building and conflict resolution in the Caucasus

State building processes in the Caucasus are influenced by the culture of the Caucasus, and previous experiences with state building after World War I. The conflicts which erupted at the time have influenced territorial claims. The role of foreign powers as Russia, the United States, Turkey, Germany is considerable in the region. Divide and rule policy of Joseph Stalin is another factor which describes existing animosities between peoples in the Caucasus. Since 1989 a transition process, or state building process, has started in the North and the South Caucasus. This book gives an in-depth analysis of the backgrounds of the conflicts, including activities by IGOs and NGOs, and the developments in international law with regard to state building practice.

Recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia two years later: unicum or trendsetting?

The article discusses the recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia by the Russia Federation following an armed conflict with Georgia. The two countries have also been recognized by Nicaragua, Venezuela and Nauru. The United Nations (UN) Security Council, in its resolutions, emphasized that its members should respect the territorial integrity of Georgia, resulting in the implication that South Ossetia and Abkhazia cannot apply for membership of the UN. An accord was signed by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Russia to determine their commitment to peace talks.

Armenia Between 1918 And 1921

This chapter provides an overview of the changing boundaries of Armenia from the time of the Russian Revolution until the promulgation of Stalins Constitution in 1936. In the Russian Empire, Armenians were distributed over the provinces as Tiflis, Baku, Elisavetpol, Yerevan and Kars. Around 1918 Armenia formed several political parties, some originating in Turkish Armenia, some in Russian Armenia. The oldest party was the Hunchak party. This Social Democratic Party was founded in Geneva in 1887. The second oldest political party in Armenia is the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), also known as the Dashnaktsutiun (also called Dashnaks). This political party was created in Tbilisi in 1890. After the declaration of independence, the Armenian government started to sign arbitration and trade treaties with its Transcaucasian neighbors Georgia and Azerbaijan in order to secure its position in the region.Keywords: Armenia; Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF); Azerbaijan; Geneva; Georgia; Hunchak party; Tbilisi

State Building In The North Caucasus

The state building process in the North Caucasus since the domination of the Russians in the area started in the 19th century is helpful in understanding territorial claims of North Caucasian peoples since 1991. It also clarifies the relation between the central authorities in Moscow and the authorities in the North Caucasus. On 21 March 1838, General Golovin was appointed the new Russian chief commander for the Caucasus. His plan of action for the Caucasus was comprising, a descent on the Black Sea coast, the final subjugation of the Upper Samur communities and the conquest of Chechnya and Northern Daghestan. The Circassians are thus one of the biggest minorities in the former Ottoman Empire. Amjad Jaimoukha estimates that there are about 600 Circassian villages in Central and Western Anatolia.Keywords: Black Sea Coast; Chechnya; Circassians; North Caucasus; Northern Daghestan; Ottoman empire; state building

State Building In Armenia Since 1991

The first non-Communist government in Armenia came to power on 5 August 1990. Armenia declared itself an independent, sovereign Republic on 23 August 1990, and on 25 August the parliament adopted a declaration of independence. On 27 June 1994 a debate in the Armenian parliament on a new constitution took place. Armenia is said to have given military assistance to the ethnic Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh. Due to the fighting over Nagorno-Karabakh, Armenia could expand its territory on the Azerbaijani side of the border. On 2 March 1992 Armenia became a member of the United Nations, and Armenia was accepted as a member of the Council of Europe on 25 January 2001.Keywords: Armenia; State Building

State Building In The North Caucasus After The Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution created unprecedented possibilities for the peoples in the South Caucasus. For the first time they were united in the (con)federation of the Transcaucasus. This (con)federation did not last long, and was soon replaced by the three independent states of Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia. The state building process in the three republics was difficult, due to the devastation from the fighting during the last months of the war. The first priorities for the new government were to improve the infrastructure, create democratic structures such as elections and strengthen the power of the governments. Between 1920 and the beginning of 1921 Russia (re)conquered the republics, which first became SSRs in the RSFSR, then joined in a TSFSR in the Soviet Union, and from 1936 onwards were separate SSRs in the Soviet Union. In this period one recognizes the roots of the territorial conflicts that arose after 1991.Keywords: Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia; Russian Revolution; South Caucasus; state building

Conflict Resolution In The North Caucasus

Since the North Caucasian Republics form part of the Russian Federation, conflict resolution efforts in the North Caucasus by third parties require action and approval by the central authorities in Moscow. The Russian Federation regards conflicts in the North Caucasus as an internal affair. For a government to benefit from the activities of such organizations, it is important that they are not regarded as counterproductive by the government. In the case of the North Caucasus, organizations do their work in some Republics under difficult circumstances, and are successful on the micro level. The problems the North Caucasus faces are however so immense, that we have to realize that both intergovernmental, non-governmental and governmental organizations have a long way to go to realize peace, prosperity and justice in the Republics.Keywords: conflict resolution; North Caucasus; Russian Federation

Georgia Between 1918 And 1921

Between 1918 and 1921 Georgia was relatively successful in finding recognition by the international community. Georgia did have problems concerning its territorial integrity, there were disputes with Armenia and Azerbaijan. During this period Ajarians, South Ossetians and Abkhazians revolted against the government in Tiflis, trying to protect their own interests. Between 1920 and 1921, with the consent of the Allies, Russia reestablished its sphere of influence over the Transcaucasian territories, as had been the situation before the Revolution and in 1921 Georgia was incorporated in the RSFSR. After the Russian October Revolution, a Menshevik dominated National Council came to power on 22 November 1917, which was regarded as the principal organ of the Georgian nation.Keywords: Abkhazia; Ajaria; Georgia; Germany; Russia; South Ossetia; territorial integrity

Azerbaijan Between 1918 And 1921

Azerbaijan in the Treaty of Batumi retained all its territory. Under Article IV of the Treaty it received the promise of Turkish military assistance for the restoration of security and order if needed. The Azerbaijani Musavat delegation to the Paris Peace Conference addressed a note to President Wilson (which is remarkable, since he was by no means the only person to decide on recognition by the League of Nations), making the following requests such as that the independence of Azerbaijan be recognized and that Azerbaijan be admitted to the League of Nations. On 16 June 1919 Azerbaijan signed a mutual defense treaty with Georgia, where it renounced claims to the Muslim parts of western Transcaucasia. Zangezur lies in the south of the Transcaucasus, being divided between Armenia and Azerbaijan. Zangezur is of political and strategic importance due to its geographical position.Keywords: Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia; Paris Peace Conference; Transcaucasia; Zangezur

State Building In Georgia Since 1991

A majority in Georgia voted against the preservation of the Soviet Union, although in Abkhazia 52,4% voted in favor of the reformed Soviet Union. The South Ossetians and Abkhazians, who are linguistically different from the Georgians and have their own cultures, were afraid that their autonomy would be infringed. The demands of the South Ossetians went back to the period before South Ossetia became part of the Georgian SSR. They wished to unite with North Ossetia. The recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia by the Russian Federation was a unilateral act. Therefore, with the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, they were states in the sense of the Montevideo Convention, and according to the four criteria of state building such as territory and recognition.Keywords: Abkhazia; georgia; South Ossetia; Soviet Union; state building