C. Steven Richards

Behavioral self-control and smoking reduction: A study of self-initiated attempts to reduce smoking*

Self-initiated attempts to reduce smoking are common experiences that have received little attention from researchers. Through a structured interview procedure, this investigation sought to determine which factors and methods, especially behavioral self-control methods, are critical to successfully self-reduced smoking. Forty-eight college students (24 “successful” and 24 “unsuccessful”) were interviewed about their attempts to self-control smoking. The results indicate that successful smoking reducers (1) used more techniques for longer periods of time and (2) used self-reinforcement and problem-solving procedures more frequently than did unsuccessful smoking reducers.

Self-initiated attempts to cope with depression

Depression has recently been conceptualized as involving deficits in selfcontrol (Mathews, 1977; Rehm, 1977). According to this model specific dysfunctions in self-control are responsible for depression. Initial evidence indicates that self-control programs designed to remediate these deficits are effective in alleviating depression (Fuchs & Rehm, 1977; Rehm, Fuchs, Roth, Kornblith, & Romano, 1979). Another line of research indicates that most people try to cope with depression on their own (Rippere, 1976, 1977, 1979). This suggests that selfinitiated attempts to cope with depression are a frequent occurrence. Surprisingly, very little is known about these naturally occurring attempts at self-control. The present study explored the role of behavioral self-control techniques in these self-initiated efforts to alleviate depression. Specifically, this study focused on the differences between people who had successfully coped with depression on their own and those who had not (cf. Perri & Richards, 1977).

Problem-solving deficits in depressed children, adolescents, and adults

Recent research has emphasized the importance of interpersonal problems with depression. It has been hypothesized that deficits in interpersonal problem-solving skills may account for many of these problems. Three studies that examined the relationship between problem-solving skills and depression are reported. Problem-solving skills among children, adolescents, and adults were assessed by the Means-Ends Problem Solving Test. Contrary to prediction, there were no differences in problem-solving skills between depressed and nondepressed groups; these findings were consistent across each age group. The external validity of such paper-and-pencil measures of problem solving is questioned; it is suggested that future research focus on how depressed individuals solve real-life problems.

College women coping with depression

Abstract Depression is a common problem among college women, and many of them cope with it on their own (without professional help). Since these naturally occurring episodes of self-controlled behavior are frequent—and sometimes dramatically successful—they were investigated in this study. College women who had coped successfully and unsuccessfully with clinically-significant levels of depression were interviewed about their coping efforts. In contrast to previous research of this type, the present investigation did not identify any clear coping differences between successful and unsuccessful copers. Follow-up interviews indicated that many initially unsuccessful subjects eventually became much less depressed. The implications of these results are discussed, with suggestions for future research.

The politics of a token economy.

Success of a token economy program on a psychiatric ward depends more on interpersonal and institutional politics than on the esoteric fine points of therapy technique, theory, and intention. The more a token economy (or any other behavior modification program) is used as a vehicle for changing the institutional structure of mental hospitals, the more the political issue predominates. Before behavior therapists can determine the practicality of token economy programs, they must attend to the politics of institutional change.

EFFECTS OF STUDY-SKILLS COUNSELING VERSUS BEHAVIORAL SELF-CONTROL TECHNIQUES IN THE TREATMENT OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Two of the major treatment approaches to problems of academic performance are study-skills counseling and behavioral self-control. Little research has been reported comparing the relative effectiveness of these two approaches and, hence, we sought to do so. Seventy-four volunteer male and female college students who wanted to improve their academic performance participated as subjects. Subjects were randomly assigned to the following groups: ( a ) no-treatment control, ( b ) attention-placebo control, ( c ) study-skills counseling, ( d ) lengthened studyskills counseling, ( e ) behavioral self-control, and ( f ) behavioral self-control + study-skills counseling. Treatment was carried out in the context of group therapy, with an experienced residence hall counselor (first author) serving as therapist. The study-skills package involved training in skills for textbook reading, study scheduling, note taking, test taking, and writing. The behavioral self-control package involved training in self-monitoring, progressive relaxation, stimulus control, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement. Treatment groups either met 2 hr. a wk. over a 4-wk. period, or in the case of the 2 groups with lengthened or combined treatments, 4 hr. a wk. over the same period. While the results were suggestive rather than definitive, GPA change scores suggested that behavioral self-control treatments were beneficial and study-skills counseling adjuncts and extensions were not. It should be noted, however, that limitations involving design, use of only one therapist, and marginal levels of statistical significance leave the results of this study open to competing interpretations and warrant regard of conclusions with circumspection.

Enhancing the durability of treatment effects: Maintenance strategies in the treatment of nail-biting

Treatment effects often do not last. This serious problem is beginning to draw the attention of researchers, but much work remains to be done before counselors can be armed with a technology of behavioral persistence. The present investigation represents part of a research program aimed at developing such a technology. In this study two maintenance strategies were evaluated in the context of a comprehensive treatment program for severe, chronic nail-biters. Treatment programs for nail-biters are frequently plagued by high relapse rates (cf. Davidson & Denney, 1976; Vargas & Adesso, 1976) and therefore lend themselves nicely to an evaluation of maintenance strategies. The two maintenance strategies evaluated here were bibliotherapy adjuncts and phone call booster sessions. The idea of supplementing treatment programs with written materials is not a new one, although it does seem to have gained momentum recently (Glasgow & Rosen, 1978). What is relatively new is the idea of using biblio-

Issues in Open Education and Environmental Design.

This article presents a theoretical overview of the complementary relationship between open education and environmental design. An elementary education program called the Open Corridor serves as a concrete example. The Open Corridor program dovetailed many aspects of open education and environmental design. Students, teachers, administrators, parents, and consulting psychologists served in the roles of planner and implementer. A review of open education and environmental design approaches is followed by a sketch of the Open Corridor program and a discussion of issues. A bright future exists for programs that carefully open their educational processes and plan their environments.

SELF-MONITORING IN THE 16TH CENTURY: AN HISTORICAL NOTE

It is not uncommon for behavior therapists to point out that, although systematic investigation and refinement of behavioral treatment procedures has had to await the 20th Century, the procedures themselves may have been around for quite some time. In this spirit of giving historical credit where credit is due, we should like to note that selfm o n i t o r i n g a currently popular behavioral self-control technique-has been around for quite some time also. For instance, witness the following passage from The spiritual exercises of St. Ignatius: