C. W. Bark

Mechanical Writing of Ferroelectric Polarization

Changing Polarization with Applied Stress The direction of electric polarization in ferroelectric materials can be switched with an applied field, but mechanical stresses can also couple to the polarization, forming the basis for piezoelectric effects. In principle, it should be possible to change the polarization of a ferroelectric material mechanically through stress gradients. Lu et al. (p. 59; see the Perspective by Gregg) demonstrate such switching for nanoscale-sized regions created by the stress induced with an atomic force microscope. The substrates are single-crystalline barium titanate films that have a vertically aligned dipole moment created by compressive stresses in the film. This approach may lead to memory devices in which bits are written mechanically but read electrically. The stress gradient created with the tip of an atomic force microscope can locally change the polarization of a barium titanate film. Ferroelectric materials are characterized by a permanent electric dipole that can be reversed through the application of an external voltage, but a strong intrinsic coupling between polarization and deformation also causes all ferroelectrics to be piezoelectric, leading to applications in sensors and high-displacement actuators. A less explored property is flexoelectricity, the coupling between polarization and a strain gradient. We demonstrate that the stress gradient generated by the tip of an atomic force microscope can mechanically switch the polarization in the nanoscale volume of a ferroelectric film. Pure mechanical force can therefore be used as a dynamic tool for polarization control and may enable applications in which memory bits are written mechanically and read electrically.

Coexistence of superconductivity and ferromagnetism in two dimensions.

Ferromagnetism is usually considered to be incompatible with conventional superconductivity, as it destroys the singlet correlations responsible for the pairing interaction. Superconductivity and ferromagnetism are known to coexist in only a few bulk rare-earth materials. Here we report evidence for their coexistence in a two-dimensional system: the interface between two bulk insulators, LaAlO(3) (LAO) and SrTiO(3) (STO), a system that has been studied intensively recently. Magnetoresistance, Hall, and electric-field dependence measurements suggest that there are two distinct bands of charge carriers that contribute to the interface conductivity. The sensitivity of properties of the interface to an electric field makes this a fascinating system for the study of the interplay between superconductivity and magnetism.

Tailoring a two-dimensional electron gas at the LaAlO3/SrTiO3 (001) interface by epitaxial strain

Recently a metallic state was discovered at the interface between insulating oxides, most notably LaAlO3 and SrTiO3. Properties of this two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) have attracted significant interest due to its potential applications in nanoelectronics. Control over this carrier density and mobility of the 2DEG is essential for applications of these unique systems, and may be achieved by epitaxial strain. However, despite the rich nature of strain effects on oxide materials properties, such as ferroelectricity, magnetism, and superconductivity, the relationship between the strain and electrical properties of the 2DEG at the LaAlO3/SrTiO3 heterointerface remains largely unexplored. Here, we use different lattice constant single-crystal substrates to produce LaAlO3/SrTiO3 interfaces with controlled levels of biaxial epitaxial strain. We have found that tensile-strained SrTiO3 destroys the conducting 2DEG, while compressively strained SrTiO3 retains the 2DEG, but with a carrier concentration reduced in comparison to the unstrained LaAlO3/SrTiO3 interface. We have also found that the critical LaAlO3 overlayer thickness for 2DEG formation increases with SrTiO3 compressive strain. Our first-principles calculations suggest that a strain-induced electric polarization in the SrTiO3 layer is responsible for this behavior. The polarization is directed away from the interface and hence creates a negative polarization charge opposing that of the polar LaAlO3 layer. This behavior both increases the critical thickness of the LaAlO3 layer, and reduces carrier concentration above the critical thickness, in agreement with our experimental results. Our findings suggest that epitaxial strain can be used to tailor 2DEGs properties of the LaAlO3/SrTiO3 heterointerface.

Metallic and Insulating Oxide Interfaces Controlled by Electronic Correlations

The strength of electronic correlations dictates the transport properties of oxide interfaces. The formation of two-dimensional electron gases (2DEGs) at complex oxide interfaces is directly influenced by the oxide electronic properties. We investigated how local electron correlations control the 2DEG by inserting a single atomic layer of a rare-earth oxide (RO) [(R is lanthanum (La), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), samarium (Sm), or yttrium (Y)] into an epitaxial strontium titanate oxide (SrTiO3) matrix using pulsed-laser deposition with atomic layer control. We find that structures with La, Pr, and Nd ions result in conducting 2DEGs at the inserted layer, whereas the structures with Sm or Y ions are insulating. Our local spectroscopic and theoretical results indicate that the interfacial conductivity is dependent on electronic correlations that decay spatially into the SrTiO3 matrix. Such correlation effects can lead to new functionalities in designed heterostructures.

Ferroelectric Tunnel Memristor

Strong interest in resistive switching phenomena is driven by a possibility to develop electronic devices with novel functional properties not available in conventional systems. Bistable resistive devices are characterized by two resistance states that can be switched by an external voltage. Recently, memristors-electric circuit elements with continuously tunable resistive behavior-have emerged as a new paradigm for nonvolatile memories and adaptive electronic circuit elements. Employment of memristors can radically enhance the computational power and energy efficiency of electronic systems. Most of the existing memristor prototypes involve transition metal oxide resistive layers where conductive filaments formation and/or the interface contact resistance control the memristive behavior. In this paper, we demonstrate a new type of memristor that is based on a ferroelectric tunnel junction, where the tunneling conductance can be tuned in an analogous manner by several orders of magnitude by both the amplitude and the duration of the applied voltage. The ferroelectric tunnel memristors exhibit a reversible hysteretic nonvolatile resistive switching with a resistance ratio of up to 10(5) % at room temperature. The observed memristive behavior is attributed to the field-induced charge redistribution at the ferroelectric/electrode interface, resulting in the modulation of the interface barrier height.

Template engineering of Co-doped BaFe2As2 single-crystal thin films

Understanding new superconductors requires high-quality epitaxial thin films to explore intrinsic electromagnetic properties and evaluate device applications. So far, superconducting properties of ferropnictide thin films seem compromised by imperfect epitaxial growth and poor connectivity of the superconducting phase. Here we report new template engineering using single-crystal intermediate layers of (001) SrTiO(3) and BaTiO(3) grown on various perovskite substrates that enables genuine epitaxial films of Co-doped BaFe(2)As(2) with a high transition temperature (T(c,rho=0) of 21.5 K, where rho=resistivity), a small transition width (DeltaT(c)=1.3 K), a superior critical current density J(c) of 4.5 MA cm(-2) (4.2 K) and strong c-axis flux pinning. Implementing SrTiO(3) or BaTiO(3) templates to match the alkaline-earth layer in the Ba-122 with the alkaline-earth/oxygen layer in the templates opens new avenues for epitaxial growth of ferropnictides on multifunctional single-crystal substrates. Beyond superconductors, it provides a framework for growing heteroepitaxial intermetallic compounds on various substrates by matching interfacial layers between templates and thin-film overlayers.

Creation of a two-dimensional electron gas at an oxide interface on silicon

In recent years, reversible control over metal-insulator transition has been shown, at the nanoscale, in a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) formed at the interface between two complex oxides. These materials have thus been suggested as possible platforms for developing ultrahigh-density oxide nanoelectronics. A prerequisite for the development of these new technologies is the integration with existing semiconductor electronics platforms. Here, we demonstrate room-temperature conductivity switching of 2DEG nanowires formed at atomically sharp LaAlO(3)/SrTiO(3) (LAO/STO) heterointerfaces grown directly on (001) Silicon (Si) substrates. The room-temperature electrical transport properties of LAO/STO heterointerfaces on Si are comparable with those formed from a SrTiO(3) bulk single crystal. The ability to form reversible conducting nanostructures directly on Si wafers opens new opportunities to incorporate ultrahigh-density oxide nanoelectronic memory and logic elements into well-established Si-based platforms.

Switchable induced polarization in LaAlO3/SrTiO3 heterostructures.

Demonstration of a tunable conductivity of the LaAlO(3)/SrTiO(3) interfaces drew significant attention to the development of oxide electronic structures where electronic confinement can be reduced to the nanometer range. While the mechanisms for the conductivity modulation are quite different and include metal-insulator phase transition and surface charge writing, generally it is implied that this effect is a result of electrical modification of the LaAlO(3) surface (either due to electrochemical dissociation of surface adsorbates or free charge deposition) leading to the change in the two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) density at the LaAlO(3)/SrTiO(3) (LAO/STO) interface. In this paper, using piezoresponse force microscopy we demonstrate a switchable electromechanical response of the LAO overlayer, which we attribute to the motion of oxygen vacancies through the LAO layer thickness. These electrically induced reversible changes in bulk stoichiometry of the LAO layer are a signature of a possible additional mechanism for nanoscale oxide 2DEG control on LAO/STO interfaces.

Weak-link behavior of grain boundaries in superconducting Ba(Fe1−xCox)2As2 bicrystals

We show that despite the low anisotropy, strong vortex pinning, and high irreversibility field Hirr close to the upper critical field Hc2 of Ba(Fe1−xCox)2As2, the critical current density Jgb across [001] tilt grain boundaries (GBs) of thin film Ba(Fe1−xCox)2As2 bicrystals is strongly depressed, similar to high-Tc cuprates. Our results suggest that weak-linked GBs are characteristic of both cuprates and pnictides because of competing orders, low carrier density, and unconventional pairing symmetry.

Enhancement of Ferroelectric Polarization Stability by Interface Engineering

By using theoretical predictions based on first-principle calculations, we explore an interface engineering approach to stabilize polarization states in ferroelectric heterostructures with a thickness of just several nanometers.