Caleb Kwong

Differences in perceptions of access to finance between potential male and female entrepreneurs: Evidence from the UK

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine whether being female increases the probability that an individual feels difficulty in obtaining finance is a barrier to starting a business. The study aims to extend this to examine if a pure gender effect exists or whether it is the interaction of gender with demographic, economic and perceptual characteristics that plays the most important role in the perception of financial constraint.Design/methodology/approach – The data within this study are drawn from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) adult population survey between 2005 and 2007. The first stage of the study splits male and female respondents into separate sub‐samples and runs individual regressions on each portion of the sample. The second stage of the study combines the male and female portions of the sample to directly examine the differences in perceived financial constraint between genders.Findings – The findings suggest that a greater proportion of women are solely constrained by fina...

Education and entrepreneurial activity: a comparison of White and South Asian men

Although a large body of literature exists on ethnic entrepreneurship and the relationship between education and entrepreneurial activity, comparatively little work has been undertaken to study the impact that university-level education has upon entrepreneurship within different ethnic minority groups. This article examines the entrepreneurial activity rates for graduates and non-graduates of three differing ethnic groups in the UK and shows that university education has differing influences across ethnic groups. While Pakistani graduate respondents were more likely to be involved in entrepreneurial activities as compared to non-graduates, education appeared to have less impact on increasing the interest in entrepreneurship of Indian adults. This is likely to be a reflection of the differing forces that have traditionally driven individuals from these communities into entrepreneurship, as indicated by a large Pakistani move from necessity-driven entrepreneurship to opportunity-driven entrepreneurship. Therefore, the relationship between entrepreneurship and education varies by ethnic minority group, and policy initiatives to increase entrepreneurship within these groups needs to be adjusted accordingly to be effective.

Nascent entrepreneurial activity within female ethnic minority groups

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to compare the entrepreneurial activity, attitudes and social connections of four groups of ethnic minority females in the UK, with the aim of examining the extent of gender and ethnic background effects on nascent start‐up activities and the attitudes of women belonging to these ethnic minority groups.Design/methodology/approach – A two‐stage approach is adopted to examine the situations of four main female ethnic minority groups using data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) adult population survey for the UK. The first stage adopts a binary logistic approach to determine the importance of social networks, opportunity perception and risk aversion to the probability of being involved in nascent entrepreneurial activities. The second stage of analysis examines the differences in these perceptual variables to determine the extent to which different female ethnic minority groups are embedded in different social environments when attempting to start a busines...

The When and Why: Student Entrepreneurial Aspirations

Although connections between university enterprise courses and entrepreneurial activity have been examined, less work has investigated the intended timing of future entrepreneurial activities. Using data from a survey of .. business students, it is found that those intending to enter entrepreneurship right away place less emphasis on avoiding stress and responsibility, seeing themselves as natural leaders. They were also more confident of succeeding, but not because of superior knowledge. A greater emphasis on entrepreneurial activities in all institutional environments, including the corporate, may help balance the need to harness enthusiasm while it lasts with the need to acquire relevant experience.

Entrepreneurship in Deprived Urban Communities: The Case of Wales

The potential of entrepreneurial activity for rejuvenating deprived communities has been recognised by policymakers, especially with regard to reducing unemployment. Utilising data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) in conjunction with the Welsh Index of Multiple Deprivation (WIMD), this study examines the relationship between early stage entrepreneurial activity and entrepreneurial attitudes and attributes, with the different domains of deprivation. It is found that those living in the more deprived urban areas of Wales have a much lower level of entrepreneurial activity. Most domains of deprivation have a negative influence on entrepreneurship, although a lack of services has a positive effect and makes individuals more likely to start a business without the requirement for an existing business community. However, the environment influence disappears as more individual characteristics are accounted for. This implies that whilst entrepreneurship is lower in deprived urban areas, the primary reason for this is the characteristics of those living in these areas, rather than any environmental effects. Controlling for the choice of location, an environmental effect is found to exist, negatively influencing entrepreneurial social capital. This casts doubt on the potential for enterprise to alleviate the deprivation of an area if success is likely to result in out-migration.

The Role of Language on Affiliates' Competence-Creation: Evidence from the MNE Linkage across 45 Countries

Does a ‘common language’ matter when it comes to knowledge and competence creation of affiliates by multinational enterprises (MNEs)? While there are signs that knowledge and competencies are diffusing and equilibrating throughout the world (Ernst and Kim, 2002), the development of innovation pockets suggests that the diffusion process has remained far from equal. This chapter aims to examine the reasons behind such unequal geographical dispersion of innovation by focusing on a specific contextual factor, namely, the role of a common language in the process of diffusion. Specifically, this chapter focuses on how a common language between a parent and its affiliates facilitates or hinders the development of knowledge and competencies within the latter. Whilst a number of host country factors have been thoroughly explored in the literature (Yamawaki, 2004), there has been little attempt thus far to link the effect of multinational parents’ home country to the knowledge and competence development of affiliates. Arguably, with the exception of several qualitative papers (Buckley et al., 2005; Marschan et al., 1997; Welch et al., 2005), the role of common language on innovation development of affiliates has not been adequately explored within the international business (IB) literature. In particular, no study that we are aware of examines such a linkage using quantitative analysis.

Chapter 2 Enterprise Education and the Adoption of New Technologies Within Small Firms

Enterprise education has been regularly cited as a tool which can be utilised to not only increase the level of entrepreneurship within an economy, but also the success of those enterprises started. This paper explores the extent to which participation in enterprise education is associated with the adoption of new technology within new businesses. As this is one way that businesses can remain competitive not only within their own countries but when competing against international competition. Using data from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor survey from the UK, the study finds weak evidence that those undertaking enterprise education in the form of university based schemes or government sponsored training schemes are more likely to be using newer technology. However, this relationship is relatively weak and does bring into question whether many enterprise courses are effective value for money.

Resource bricolage and growth of product and market scope in social enterprises

Abstract This research aims to understand how resource bricolage strategy plays a role in the growth of social enterprises in terms of their product and market. Based on interviews with nine social enterprises, our exploratory finding suggests that social enterprises often employ both internal and network resources in the process of making do. We further explore the relationship between the form of resource utilisation and the nature and scope of activities that the social enterprises embark upon, and find that only those relying on both internal and network bricolage are able to expand into new markets utilising newly developed products. We also find that social enterprises relying on only internal resources can reach the same point through incremental improvisation, by first moving towards either product extension or market expansion, before then embarking on the other. This research contributes to the social entrepreneurship literature by enhancing our understanding of the relationship between resource bricolage strategy and growth of social enterprises through product/ market scope in a penurious environment. The findings of this research also have implications for social enterprise managers and policy makers in utilising their resources and responding to environmental opportunities and challenges.

Bricolage, collaboration and mission drift in social enterprises

Abstract Increasingly, social enterprises are relying on collaboration with partners to tackle the resource constraints that they face. In this research we focus on the strategy of bricolage to explore whether and how the different types of partner becoming involved may impact on the mission of social enterprises. Grounded in resource dependency and transaction cost theories, we explore how power asymmetry and the nature of involvement may impact on the outcomes of bricolage. Our findings demonstrate that in the more integrated relationships with high power asymmetry, more instances of mission drift might be observed compared to when social enterprises develop the more collaborative or complementary nature of partnerships with symmetrical power dependency, or when the partners’ involvements are mainly transaction-based.

The potential of trading activity income to fund third sector organisations operating in deprived areas

In the United Kingdom, as in other countries, Third Sector Organisations have been drawn towards income sources associated with trading activities, but many remain reliant on grant funding to support such activities. Using a multivariate analysis approach and data from the National Survey of Charities and Social Enterprises, it is found that trading activities are used relatively commonly in deprived areas. These organisations are also more likely to attempt to access public sector funds. This suggests policy-makers need to consider the impact of funding cuts on Third Sector Organisations in the most deprived areas as Third Sector Organisations are unlikely to achieve their objectives without continuing support.