Carl Egede Bøggild

The ablation zone in northeast Greenland: ice types, albedos and impurities

Ice types, albedos and impurity content are characterized for the ablation zone of the Greenland ice sheet in Kronprinz Christians Land (80° N, 24° W). Along this ice margin the width of the ablation zone is only about 8 km. The emergence and melting of old ice in the ablation zone creates a surface layer of dust that was originally deposited with snowfall high on the ice sheet. This debris cover is augmented by locally derived wind-blown sediment. Subsequently, the surface dust particles often aggregate together to form centimetre-scale clumps that melt into the ice, creating cryoconite holes. The debris in the cryoconite holes becomes hidden from sunlight, raising the area-averaged albedo relative to surfaces with uniform debris cover. Spectral and broadband albedos were obtained for snow, ice hummocks, debris-covered ice, cryoconite-studded ice and barren tundra surfaces. Broadband ice albedos varied from 0.2 (for ice with heavy loading of uniform debris) to 0.6 (for ice hummocks with cryoconite holes). The cryoconite material itself has albedo 0.1 when wet. Areal distribution of the major surface types was estimated visually from a transect video as a function of distance from the ice edge (330 m a.s.l.). Ablation rates were measured along a transect from the ice margin to the slush zone 8 km from the margin (550 m a.s.l.), traversing both Pleistocene and Holocene ice. Ablation rates in early August averaged 2 cm d -1 . Impurity concentrations were typically 4.3 mg L -1 in the subsurface ice. Surface concentrations were about 16 g m -2 on surfaces with low impurity loading, and heavily loaded surfaces had concentrations as high as 1.4 kg m -2 . The mineralogical composition of the cryoconite material is comparable with that of the surrounding soils and with dust on a snowdrift in front of the ice margin, implying that much of the material is derived from local sources. A fine mode (clay) is present in the oldest ice but not in the nearby soil, suggesting that its origin is from wind deposition during Pleistocene glaciation.

A new present-day temperature parameterization for Greenland

Near-surface air temperature (2 m) over the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) is parameterized using data from automatic weather stations located on land and on the ice sheet. The parameterization is expressed in terms of mean annual temperatures and mean July temperatures, both depending linearly on altitude, latitude and longitude. The temperature parameterization is compared to a previous study and is shown to be in better agreement with observations. The temperature parameterization is tested in a positive degree-day model to simulate the present (1996-2006) mean melt area extent of the GrIS. The model accounts for firn warming, rainfall and refreezing of meltwater, with different degree-day factors for ice and snow under warm and cold climate conditions. The simulated melt area extent is found to have reasonable agreement with satellite-derived observations.

The microstructure and biogeochemistry of Arctic cryoconite granules

Abstract A cryoconite granule is a biologically active aggregation of microorganisms, mineral particles and organic matter found on glacier surfaces, often within shallow pools or cryoconite holes. Observations of the microstructure of a range of cryoconite granules from locations in Svalbard and Greenland reveal their structure and composition. Whereas bulk analyses show that the mineralogy and geochemistry of these granules are broadly similar, analyses of their microstructure, using optical, epifluorescence and confocal microscopy, indicate differences in the location and quantity of photosynthetic microorganisms, heterotrophic bacteria and organic matter. Using these findings, a hypothesis on the aggregation of cryoconite is presented, centred upon multilevel aggregation by bioflocculation and filamentous binding.

The cryoconite ecosystem on the Greenland ice sheet

Abstract This paper presents an assessment of biological activity associated with ice surface debris (cryoconite) at the ice-sheet scale. Estimates of the mass distribution of cryoconite over the Greenland ice sheet (GIS) and the biological activity associated with it are presented and then coupled with a surface mass-balance model to estimate total carbon fluxes due to respiration and photosynthesis. We find an average loading of 66gm−2 at Kangerlussuaq, southwest Greenland, which compares well with recent estimates from Kronprins Christians Land (17–440 gm−2: Bøggild and others, 2010) in northeast Greenland. We also report a significant microbial biomass in cryoconite at both these places (103–104 cells mg−1) and carbon fluxes of the order of 1–3 μM C g−1d−1 for both respiration and photosynthesis. The modelling indicates that total respiration and photosynthesis fluxes are likely to be ∼101–102 GgCa−1 and thus far from trivial. However, estimation of the net ecosystem impact across the entire ice sheet on atmospheric CO2 concentrations is problematic because photosynthesis rates were almost certainly low during our field campaign. Therefore, like its water balance, the carbon balance of the GIS is now known to be important, but its accurate quantification will remain elusive until more data are forthcoming.

Modelling ablation and mass-balance sensitivity to climate change of Storstrømmen, northeast greenland

Ablation measurements have been performed along a stakeline on Storstrommen glacier during two seasons of glaciological fieldwork in 1989 and 1990 and followed up by a short visit in 1992. As part of the investigation basic climate stations were operated during the 1989 and 1990 field seasons. Ablation and temperature data have served as input for a degree-day model covering the lowermost 1400 m of the glacier basin. By means of the model the mass-balance has been reconstructed back to 1949 using climatological time series from the coastal station Danmarkshavn. The results show no trend in mass-balance over the period from 1949 to 1991, although both mean annual temperature and precipitation had increased during the last 30 years. In the Northeast Greenland region, the GCMs predict an enhanced winter warming of 8–14°K as compared to a summer warming of only 2–4°K if atmospheric CO2 is doubled. Sensitivity tests are performed in which the required snow precipitation increase that matches the increased ablation from rise of summer temperatures are found. Another test shows the increase of ablation with different degrees of summer heating dTS based on GCM scenarios of greenhouse-induced warming. Under these conditions the change of the mass-balance of the ablation zone of Storstrommen is much different from previous estimates using equal summer and winter heating.

Melting, runoff and the formation of frozen lakes in a mixed snow and blue-ice field in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica

Large-scale melting phenomena such as meltwater drainage channels and meltwater accumulation basins of frozen lakes were surveyed on the land ice mass in Jutulgryta, Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, during the Norwegian Antarctic Research Expedition in 1989–90 (NARE 1989–90). The largest frozen lake that was observed was close to 1 km in width. These melting features were also detected in a Landsat Thematic Mapper image recorded on 12 February 1990. Then, during NARE 1993–94, a 5year glaciological programme was started in this area. In spite of negative air temperatures and the presence of a frozen ice surface, sub-surface melting and runoff were found within the uppermost metre in blue-ice fields. The sub-surface melting is a consequence of solar radiative penetration and absorption within the ice, i.e. the “solid-state-greenhouse effect”. Temperatures in blue ice were about 6°C higher than for snow. Internal melt and meltwater transport were observed throughout the 1 month of measurements. The conditions for active melting in Jutulgryta are probably marginal. A slight increase of air temperatures can result in more “classical” surface melting, whereas a cooling may disable sub-surface melting. Studies of how the extent and characteristics of the melting features change with time can be particularly valuable as indicators of climate change. This ongoing programme clearly identifies the importance of analyzing how these melting features originate, of mapping their present areal distribution, of determining how sensitive they are to climate change and of Studying changes in the past and possible changes in the future.

Elemental carbon deposition to Svalbard snow from Norwegian settlements and long-range transport

The impact on snow pack albedo from local elemental carbon (EC) sources in Svalbard has been investigated for the winter of 2008. Highly elevated EC concentrations in the snow are observed around the settlements of Longyearbyen and Svea (locally >1000 ng g-1, about 200 times over the background level), while EC concentrations similar to the background level are seen around Ny-Ålesund. Near Longyearbyen and Svea, darkened snow influenced by wind transported coal dust from open coal stockpiles is clearly visible from satellite images and by eye at the ground. As a first estimate, the reduction in snow albedo caused by local EC pollution from the Norwegian settlements has been compared to the estimated reduction caused by long-range transported EC for entire Svalbard. The effect of local EC from Longyearbyen, Svea and all Norwegian settlements are estimated to 2.1%, 7.9% and 10% of the total impact of EC, respectively. The EC particles tend to stay on the surface during melting, and elevated EC concentrations due to the spring melt was observed. This accumulation of EC enhances the positive albedo feedbacks. The EC concentrations were observed to be larger in metamorphosed snow than in fresh snow, and especially around ice lenses.

Meltwater retention in a transect across the Greenland ice sheet

Abstract Meltwater retention by freezing is a highly climate-sensitive term in the mass budget since the cold content is directly controlled by winter climate, which is expected to change most in an anthropogenic-driven climate change. Meltwater released at the surface percolates into dry snow in a pattern with alternating horizontal and vertical water-flow directions, where the processes of pore refreezing (RF) (vertical flow) and superimposed ice (SI) formation (horizontal flow) occur. The flow cannot be forecasted and quantified when water first enters cold, dry snow. However, because the two processes are driven by different physical mechanisms, their potential magnitude can be estimated, which has been done in a transect at 66° N. Results show that SI declines from west to east and inversely correlates with accumulation. From the total retention capacity, theoretical lowest-runoff lines were determined at ∼1400ma.s.l. in the west and ∼1600ma.s.l. in the east. Since the SI potential is high in most places and the warming from SI formation predominately occurs near to the surface, it is argued that winter cooling effectively recharges the cold content of the snow/firn/ice pack, preventing the development of isothermal conditions and subsequent runoff. However, SI formation declines over time, so an extension of the melting season could result in deeper percolation beyond the SI layer.

Snowmelt and runoff modelling of an Arctic hydrological basin in west Greenland

This paper compares the performance of a conceotual modelling system and several physically-based models for predicting runoff in a large hydrological basin, Tasersuaq, in west Greenland. This basin, which is typical of many Greenland basins, is interesting because of the fast hydiological response to changing conditions. Due to the predominance of exposed bedrock surtace and only minor occurrence of sediments and organic soils, there is little restraint to run-off, making the treatment of the snowmelt component of primary importance Presently a conceptual modelling system. HBV, is applied in Greenland and also in most of the arctic regions of Scandinavia for operational forecasting. A general wish to use hydrological models for other purposes, such as to improve data collection and to gain insight into the hydrological processes has promoted interest in the more physically-based hydrological models In this paper, two degree-day models, the Danish version of the physically-based SHE distributed hydrological modelling system (MIKE SHE) and the conceptual HBV model are compared with a new model that links MIKE SHE and a distributed energy balance model developed for this study, APUT The HBV model performs The best overall simulation of discharge, which presently makes it most suited for general forecasting. The combination of MIKE SHE and APUT i.e. a physically based modelling system shows promising results by improving the timing of the initiation of spring flood, but does not perform as well throughout the remaining part of the snowmelt season. The modelling study shows that local parameters such as the snow depletion curve, the temporal snow albedo and perhaps also melt water storage need to be more precisely determined from field studies before physically-based modelling can be improved.

Automatic glacier ablation measurements using pressure transducers

An instrument is described that automatically records ice ablation while eliminating the need for ablation stakes. A pressure transducer placed at the bottom of a hole drilled into the ice is connected by a hose to a bladder lying on the surface. Ice ablation is detected as a reduction in the hydrostatic pressure measured by the transducer.