Carla A. Litchfield

A review of the relationship between indigenous Australians, dingoes (Canis dingo) and domestic dogs (Canis familiaris).

ABSTRACT Canids form a large part of Indigenous Australian life and mythology, an association first developed with the dingo, and later with the domestic dog. The relationship between canids and Indigenous Australians is intricate, but unique in that these peoples never domesticated the wild dingo. Neither were dingoes and dogs seen as a source of food nor in many cases considered practical hunting assistants, yet they were highly prized. Apart from featuring heavily in Indigenous Australian spirituality (The Dreaming), advantages of camp dingoes and dogs include them being protectors or guardians, “bed warmers,” and companions. However, these benefits were weighed against the many associated social and economic costs incurred such as disruption to camp life and religious ceremony, burden on camp food supply and storage, and potential source of disease. This review explores the relationship between Indigenous Australians, dingoes and dogs, and attempts to explain why dingoes, and later dogs, were kept, yet not domesticated. By bringing together the many disparate observations made by early anthropologists, insight into traditional human–canid relationships may be gleaned.

How well do dingoes, Canis dingo, perform on the detour task?

The ‘detour task’ assesses spatial problem-solving abilities, requiring the subject to travel around a transparent barrier to obtain a reward. Recent studies have found that domestic dogs, Canis familiaris, generally perform poorly on this task, and fail to improve performance significantly after repeated trials or generalize problem-solving strategies when conditions are reversed. In contrast, wolves, Canis lupus, have been shown to be more proficient at this task than their domestic counterparts. Wild canids, however, have yet to be tested on the V-shaped version of the detour task. We tested 20 sanctuary raised dingoes, Canis dingo, randomly allocated to one of four experimental conditions previously tested on dogs: inward detour (doors closed); outward detour (doors closed); inward detour (doors open); or inward detour (human demonstrator). Four trials were given for each condition, with the fifth trial reversed. Overall, dingoes completed the detour task successfully, with shorter latencies and fewer errors than dogs tested in previous studies. The results lend support to the idea that captive-raised wild canids are more adept at nonsocial problem solving than domestic dogs.

Psychological science, conservation, and environmental sustainability

Because environmental degradation has the potential to negatively affect mental and social well-being, environmental sustainability is highly relevant to psychologists, who have a tradition of interventions designed to change behavior. Although many psychologists are already using psychological knowledge and tools to protect environmental resources, their efforts are neither widely known nor extensively utilized in applied conservation settings. Here, we describe some barriers to effective conservation interventions adopted by psychologists and conservation professionals alike, and provide suggestions to both disciplines for more productive engagement. We also present an illustrative example of psychological science applied to promote environmental conservation in a zoological park setting. Our aim is to raise awareness of the possibilities for such collaboration and to urge conservation professionals and psychologists to work together in order to proactively address pressing environmental challenges.

Harnessing visual media in environmental education: increasing knowledge of orangutan conservation issues and facilitating sustainable behaviour through video presentations

Many animals are currently facing extinction. Conservation education which highlights the impacts of our behaviour on other species survival is crucial. This study provides evidence for the use of visual media to increase knowledge, attitudes and conservation behaviours regarding the highly endangered orangutan. University students (n = 126) were shown two styles of educational presentation (knowledge-based, emotive), representative of material widely available through the internet. Participants were randomly assigned to groups, with presentation order counterbalanced. A repeated measures between groups ANCOVA revealed significant increases in knowledge about orangutans over time (p < 0.001), with a significant main effect of group condition (p < 0.001). An interaction between time and condition was also observed (p < 0.001). For participant attitudes toward orangutans, only a significant main effect of time was detected (p = 0.001). Regardless of presentation order, maximum increases occurred with the cumulative effect of both presentations. Behavioural data suggests knowledge and attitude changes translated into actual, at least short term, behaviour change, with 84.8% of participants who returned a behaviour diary (36.5% return rate) reporting changing their behaviour in the week following the study. The potential wide-ranging application of such forms of media to spread environmental messages and foster more sustainable behaviour is discussed.

Measuring zoo visitor learning and understanding about orangutans: evaluation to enhance learning outcomes and to foster conservation action

Despite the endangered status of the orangutan, very little research has sought to understand what people know about this species or the conservation challenges they face. As zoos are well placed to influence such understandings, the present study sought to explore knowledge following a visit to orangutan exhibits at three Australian zoos (N = 240). Two learning assessments were utilised, capturing (1) self-reported learning and (2) understandings in relation to the information zoos prioritise for inclusion on exhibit signage. The relationship between the latter, attitudes toward orangutans and intentions for future conservation behaviour were also explored. Higher knowledge scores were significantly (indirectly) associated with intentions for future conservation behaviour through higher attitudes (indirect effect = 0.15, std. error = .05, z = 3.12, p < .01). In turn, the zoo visited, satisfaction with orangutan activity levels, having visited orangutan natural habitat, a zoo visit in the previous 12-months, and older age were all associated with higher knowledge scores (model R2 = 20.3). The importance of enhancing visitor understandings (e.g. through improved exhibit design and signage displays, and through encouraging repeat zoo visits) for conservation action is discussed.

Looking back at ‘looking back’: operationalising referential gaze for dingoes in an unsolvable task

This paper examined the performance of dingoes (Canis dingo) on the rope-pulling task, previously used by Miklósi et al. (Curr Biol 13:763–766, 2003) to highlight a key distinction in the problem-solving behaviour of wolves compared to dogs when in the company of humans. That is, when dogs were confronted with an unsolvable task, following a solvable version of the task they looked back or gazed at the human, whereas, wolves did not. We replicated the rope-pulling task using 12 sanctuary-housed dingoes and used the Miklósi et al. (Curr Biol 13:763–766, 2003) definition of looking back behaviour to analyse the data. However, at least three different types of look backs were observed in our study. We, then developed a more accurate operational definition of looking back behaviour that was task specific and reanalysed the data. We found that the operational definition employed greatly influences the results, with vague definitions potentially overestimating the prevalence of looking back behaviour. Thus, caution must be taken when interpreting the results of studies utilising looking back as behaviour linked to assistance seeking during problem solving. We present a more stringent definition and make suggestions for future research.

Fear of dogs in a community sample: Effects of age, gender and prior experience of canine aggression

Abstract An investigation was conducted into human fear of dogs and experiences of canine aggression in an adult community sample (n = 292). Consistent with expectations, it was found that, while fear of dogs was relatively common (present in almost half the respondents), fear of dog attacks was less so, and extreme fear of dog attacks was very rare. Women, middle-aged and older adults were more likely to fear dogs than men and younger adults, while older people were more likely than younger ones to fear dog attacks. Reported encounters with canine aggression, particularly threatening behavior, were relatively common, but having been attacked by a dog was less strongly related to fear of dogs than having been threatened by a dog. Logistic regression analyses revealed that being female, having been threatened by a dog, and being older were strong predictors of dog-related fear, while being older and obtaining higher scores on a measure of trait anxiety predicted fear of dog attacks.

What Can Zookeepers Tell Us About Interacting With Big Cats in Captivity

Despite the potential dangers involved, interactions between zookeepers and captive big cats are increasing. Research with other animals, particularly nonhuman primates, suggests that closer interactions can be beneficial not only for the animals and their keepers, but also for zoo visitors. This study sought to determine whether the same benefits may apply to keeper-big cat interactions. An online questionnaire was completed by 86 keepers worldwide, assessing which types of handling (hands-on, protected, hands-off) they practice with their big cats, whether they practice training, and what their opinions of these methods are (through a series of rating scales and open-ended questions). Protected contact was the most frequently used handling method among this sample, particularly with lions, tigers, and cheetahs, and training was practiced by the majority of participants with all big cat species. Participants perceived protected contact as the most beneficial handling practice for big cats, keepers, and visitors, noting how it can allow a close bond between keeper and cat, as well as its educational value for zoo visitors. Contrastingly, concerns were raised about the use of hands-on approaches, particularly with regard to the safety of all parties involved and the potential for wrong messages to be sent to visitors. Further, training was reported to be more beneficial for each group than any handling practice, yielding similar potential benefits as protected contact. Consistent with existing information with other species, these findings will be useful in directing objective research examining the use of different handling and training methods with big cats.

A Case Study of Orangutan and Siamang Behavior Within a Mixed-Species Zoo Exhibit

This empirical case study assessed the behavior and welfare of 2 orangutans (Pongo abelii) and 2 siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus) within a mixed-species zoo exhibit. The study used instantaneous scan-sampling to record behavior, location, and interspecies proximity over 174 hr and all-occurrences data for any interactions between species. Results revealed frequent affiliative interactions between the female orangutan and siamang pair and an absence of agonistic or aggressive encounters. All individuals used the majority of the exhibit without segregation by species. Both orangutans spent most of their time on the ground (above 70% of all scans), and low levels of foraging were identified (1–4% of scans for all individuals). Overall, the findings support the notion that mixed-species exhibits may be enriching to the species involved through increased stimulation and opportunities for interaction. A poststudy incident also highlights the need for careful and continual monitoring of mixed-species exhibits over time.

Responsible Tourism: A Conservation Tool or Conservation Threat?

The year 2003 marked the 30th anniversary of organized gorilla tourism, with tens of thousands of international visitors catching a precious glimpse of the gorillas’ fragile equatorial ecosystem (Weber, 1993). For three decades, gorilla trekkers have stepped into a breathtakingly beautiful African landscape, steeped in human and gorilla blood. Gorilla lives and deaths have been played out against a backdrop of human war, genocide, poverty, and disease, seemingly unnoticed by the international community at large (Stanford, 2001; Weber and Vedder, 2001). During these 30 years, global international tourist arrivals per year have increased by about 500 million (World Tourism Organization, 2000), and more than 30 new diseases have emerged (World Health Organization, 2002). Ebola hemorrhagic fever decimates gorilla populations in western equatorial Africa (Walsh et al., 2003), and the rapid global spread of SARS coronavirus, shows how easily new diseases may be spread by international (air) travelers (World Health Organization, 2003a). While tourism can help fund conservation, the 100th anniversary of the discovery of mountain gorillas in 2002 (Schaller, 1963), coinciding with the International Year of Ecotourism, was marred by terrorist attacks in Djerba, Bali, and Mombasa. Unpredictable global tourism trends, as a result of the war in Iraq and continued terrorist attacks, mean that conservation managers in Africa cannot afford to rely on gorilla tourism funds alone (Blom, 2001a). Most people associate gorilla tourism with the mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) of Rwanda/Uganda/Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), but the first organized gorilla tourism project was established six years earlier at Kahuzi-Biega National Park in eastern DRC with Grauer’s (Gorilla beringei graueri) or eastern lowland gorillas (Weber, 1993; Meder and Groves, 2005). The intervening years have seen these early sites devastated by regional conflicts, with two fledgling Ugandan sites emerging as the premiere gorilla tourism sites (Litchfield, 2001a). New western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla; Meder and Groves, 2005) tourism sites have sprung up in Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo-Brazzaville, Cameroon, and equatorial Chapter 4 Responsible Tourism: A Conservation Tool or Conservation Threat?