Carlo M. Cipolla

The Diffusion of Innovations in Early Modern Europe

published in the last decades. Of course quantity is not necessarily synonymous with quality and brilliant ideas are not a function of the number of titles printed. The first of the major conclusions reached by Rogers after perusing the 506 diffusion studies is that innovativeness of individuals is related to a modern rather than a traditional orientation.1 One may doubt whether such an extraordinary conclusion was worth the input of energy and goodwill that allegedly went into its production, but there is no doubt that innovations and their diffusion are a topic of major relevance in the study of social development. Innovations are to history what mutations are to biology. Actually, innovations show a remarkable tendency to cluster in time and space, and this incidentally suggests that attention should not be devoted exclusively to the eccentric individual genius of the innovators, but should also be extended to the anonymous forces of the environment. In order to be effective, an innovation has not only to be conceived but it has also to be put into practice and to be propagated. This process can be easily hindered by a number of obstacles such as the natural instinct to cling to a traditional behaviour pattern, ingrained sets of values, vested interests, institutional rigidities, shortages of resources necessary for embodying the innovation into current activity, etc., etc. Besides, innovation can be resisted on perfectly legitimate grounds. It is easy to equate resistance to innovation with stupidity and obtuseness, but it is not correct. On the one hand one has to admit that not all innovations are necessarily desirable. On the other hand, as I have indicated elsewhere, when an innovation is first introduced, its advantages over established traditions are not always very obvious.... At their first appearance, innovations are less valuable

Faith, reason, and the plague in seventeenth-century Tuscany

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Miasmas and Disease: Public Health and the Environment in the Pre-Industrial Age

The health boards in Italy and epidemiological concepts Miasmas, filth and rubbish medical reports and Florentine health magistrates doctors, diseases and the people. Appendix: ordinance of the Florentine health officers, 4 May 1622.

Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000-1700

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