Carlos F. Gaymer

One size does not fit all: The emerging frontier in large-scale marine conservation

On the 20th anniversary of the Convention on Biological Diversity, a network of very large marine protected areas (the Big Ocean network) has emerged as a key strategy in the move to arrest marine decline and conserve some of the last remaining relatively undisturbed marine areas on the globe. Here we outline the ecological, economic and policy benefits of very large-scale MPAs and show their disproportionate value to global marine conservation targets. In particular we point out that very large-scale MPAs are a critical component of reaching the Aichi targets of protecting 10% of global marine habitats by 2020, because in addition to encompassing entire ecosystems, they will bring forward the expected date of achievement by nearly three decades (2025 as opposed to 2054). While the need for small MPAs remains critical, large MPAs will complement and enhance these conservation efforts. Big Ocean sites currently contain more than 80% of managed area in the sea, and provide our best hope for arresting the global decline in marine biodiversity.

Distribution and feeding ecology of the seastars Leptasterias polaris and Asterias vulgaris in the northern Gulf of St Lawrence, Canada

Extensive field observations were made in the Mingan Islands, northern Gulf of St Lawrence, to evaluate spatial and temporal variations in the use of habitat and prey resources by two major subtidal predators, the seastars Leptasterias polaris and Asterias vulgaris . Although both seastars have similar size structures and generally overlapped in their spatial and temporal distribution, the degree of overlap varied in different sites and appeared to be related to prey abundance, substratum type and slope. Three general patterns were observed: (1) both species aggregating in shallow water and decreasing in numbers with depth; (2) the two species showing inverse depth distributions; and (3) both seastars occurring in low numbers across the subtidal zone. Temporal changes in availability of the preferred prey of the two seastars, the mussel Mytilus edulis , appeared to be a major factor affecting their abundance and distribution. The two seastars occurred together in dense aggregations on mussel beds in shallow water. They consume similar-sized mussels until the number of mussels becomes reduced when A. vulgaris , but not L. polaris , begins to select larger mussels. Once a mussel bed is decimated, the seastars appear to move away, possibly in search of other beds. Intensive seastar foraging limits the distribution of mussels to a few metres in depth. Below the mussel zone, the two seastars are spatially segregated at a small spatial scale (1 m 2 quadrat) and select different alternative prey, L. polaris feeding mainly on the crevice-dwelling clam Hiatella arctica and A. vulgaris on the ophiuroid Ophiopholis aculeata . The size partitioning of the preferred prey in shallow water, and spatial segregation and selection of different alternative prey at greater depths may reflect mechanisms permitting the two seastars to coexist.

Towards the creation of an integrated system of protected areas in Chile: achievements and challenges

Background: Chile is committed to extending its National System of Protected Areas (NSPA), focusing on eco-regions whose ecosystems are currently under-represented in the NSPA. A newly proposed law aims to create a Service of Biodiversity and Protected Areas that would unify the terrestrial and marine systems. The proposed law would allow the inclusion of private protected areas. Aims: We evaluate the current status of the conservation areas and propose an eco-regional plan that would allow reaching the overall target to bring 10% of all natural ecosystems under protection. Methods: A GAP analysis for all Chilean terrestrial and marine environments considered two protection scenarios: (1) public protected areas only, and (2) a combination of public and private protected areas. Afterwards, a multi-scale MARXAN assessment including 1367 conservation objects was carried out to identify suitable protected areas. Results: Chile does not meet its conservation target in four out of its 11 terrestrial eco-regions and in none of its eight marine eco-regions. To achieve the target of having 10% of all natural ecosystems (and conservation objects identified within them) under protection, an expansion of terrestrial public and private protected areas that currently cover 21.4% of Chile is required to reach 37.5%; marine protected areas need to cover 11.8% of Chiles exclusive economic zone. Conclusions: The under-represented conservation objects in protected areas in the highly biodiverse Mediterranean region require a proactive strategy towards establishing private protected areas. The proposed conservation law represents a first step in the right direction to extend the NSPA.

Use of prey resources by the seastars Leptasterias polaris and Asterias vulgaris: a comparison between field observations and laboratory experiments

The subtidal predators Leptasterias polaris and Asterias vulgaris strongly overlap in their size, distribution and use of prey resources. We evaluate the factors determining their use of prey (feeding rate and prey selection) by comparing prey use in the laboratory and in the field. Both seastars have the same preferred prey, the mussel Mytilus edulis, select medium-sized mussels (1.5–3.0 cm), and show similar responses to increasing mussel density (functional response). Differences between the two seastars in their feeding abilities appear to affect both their size selection of mussels and use of alternative prey when mussels become rare or absent. A. vulgaris selects larger mussels than L. polaris when mussel abundance is low, and this may optimize its energetic intake. L. polaris is be better able to prey on the crevice-dwelling clam Hiatella arctica and A. vulgaris on the ophiuroid Ophiopholis aculeata. These differences in prey selection may reduce potential competitive interactions between the two seastars, as they cause prey partitioning when the preferred prey is rare or absent. The greater feeding rate of A. vulgaris on larger mussels likely provides it with a competitive advantage when the abundance of preferred prey is limited.

Sex differences in reproductive investment: maternal care reduces escape response capacity in the whelk Buccinum undatum

We evaluated the effect of reproductive state and biochemical status of male and female whelks Buccinum undatum on their escape responses (foot contortions) when touched by their major predator, the sea star Leptasterias polaris. Gonad growth in males was not associated with a decrease in their general energetic and metabolic capacity, nor in their capacity for escape responses, but did reduce the rate of foot contortions during recuperation from exhaustive exercise. Similarly, the energetic status of females was good when the ovary was mature, suggesting that oogenesis did not require somatic reserves. On the other hand, the energetic status and muscle metabolic capacities of females dropped with egg laying. This decrease was associated with a reduced capacity for escape responses. Thus, egg laying resulted in (1) major drops in the carbohydrate and protein contents of the foot, (2) decreased activities of several glycolytic enzymes (LDH, ADH and APK) in the foot muscle, (3) a sharp drop in the digestive gland index, (4) a decrease in the number of foot contortions and (5) a decreased ability to recover from exhaustive escape exercise. Reproductive costs are much greater for females than males (as females must produce protective egg capsules, search for egg-laying sites and lay the capsules). Females have greater escape capacities than males, except directly after egg laying when their energetic reserves are virtually depleted. The greater capacity of females for escape responses may attenuate the risks associated with their greater boldness in stealing food from their predator L. polaris, particularly prior to egg laying.

Mussel beds in deeper water provide an unusual situation for competitive interactions between the seastars Leptasterias polaris and Asterias vulgaris

Abstract The common seastars Leptasterias polaris and Asterias vulgaris show competitive interactions in shallow subtidal communities in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence, particularly during summer when aggregations of the two seastars forage on mussel beds at 1–2 m in depth. We examined interactions between the two seastars in a different situation, in a mussel bed at 6 m in depth (a rare situation in this region). In the deeper mussel bed, seastars were three times more abundant than in the shallower beds, and the mussels were larger. The deeper bed disappeared rapidly due to the intense predation. Although decreased prey abundance should have favored interference interactions, we did not detect either partitioning of mussels by size or avoidance of A. vulgaris by L. polaris as previously reported when mussels are in short supply in shallower water. The lack of an avoidance behavior by L. polaris , together with the higher proportion of L. polaris than A. vulgaris that were feeding, suggests that in this situation, the dominance of A. vulgaris (observed in shallower water) is attenuated, or that L. polaris may dominate.

Crónica de un conflicto anunciado: Tres centrales termoeléctricas a carbón en un hotspot de biodiversidad de importancia mundial

El aumento de la demanda energetica chilena en los ultimos anos ha promovido la creacion de una gran cantidad de proyectos de generacion electrica. La posible instalacion de tres centrales termoelectricas a carbon al norte de la Region de Coquimbo y en las inmediaciones de areas definidas como claves para la conservacion y manejo de la biodiversidad marina (e.g., reservas marinas, areas de manejo y explotacion de recursos bentonicos) y terrestre (e.g., reserva nacional, sitios prioritarios), ha generado conflictos sociales y controversias sobre su ubicacion y compatibilidad con los usos propuestos para el area. El presente comentario plantea el conflicto que se origina entre la necesidad de cubrir los requerimientos energeticos de Chile y la implementacion de iniciativas de conservacion y manejo de recursos naturales. Se describe la importancia y relevancia ecologica y economica del area de posible instalacion de las termoelectricas y se revisan los principales impactos reportados para este tipo de tecnologia sobre la salud humana y ecosistemica. Finalmente, se proponen enfoques y herramientas que pueden asistir en la toma de decisiones y en la resolucion de conflictos.

Interactions between spatially explicit conservation and management measures: implications for the governance of marine protected areas.

Marine protected areas are not established in an institutional and governance vacuum and managers should pay attention to the wider social–ecological system in which they are immersed. This article examines Islas Choros-Damas Marine Reserve, a small marine protected area located in a highly productive and biologically diverse coastal marine ecosystem in northern Chile, and the interactions between human, institutional, and ecological dimensions beyond those existing within its boundaries. Through documents analysis, surveys, and interviews, we described marine reserve implementation (governing system) and the social and natural ecosystem-to-be-governed. We analyzed the interactions and the connections between the marine reserve and other spatially explicit conservation and/or management measures existing in the area and influencing management outcomes and governance. A top-down approach with poor stakeholder involvement characterized the implementation process. The marine reserve is highly connected with other spatially explicit measures and with a wider social–ecological system through various ecological processes and socio-economic interactions. Current institutional interactions with positive effects on the management and governance are scarce, although several potential interactions may be developed. For the study area, any management action must recognize interferences from outside conditions and consider some of them (e.g., ecotourism management) as cross-cutting actions for the entire social–ecological system. We consider that institutional interactions and the development of social networks are opportunities to any collective effort aiming to improve governance of Islas Choros-Damas marine reserve. Communication of connections and interactions between marine protected areas and the wider social–ecological system (as described in this study) is proposed as a strategy to improve stakeholder participation in Chilean marine protected areas.

Effects of La Niña on recruitment and abundance of juveniles and adults of benthic community-structuring species in northern Chile

The El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has been associated with dramatic changes in adult populations of shallow benthic community-structuring species in northern Chile. However, early ontogenetic stages are more likely to be affected by physical processes associated with ENSO (e.g. increased temperature, upwelling), potentially reflected in differences in recruitment intensity. We evaluated recruitment and abundance of juveniles and adults of the major benthic community-structuring groups (kelps, sea urchins, sea stars, crabs and rockfish) during a period affected by La Nina followed by a period of neutral conditions. Recruitment was several times higher during neutral conditions for sea urchins and sea stars. Lower recruitment during La Nina was probably caused by offshore larval transport caused by increased upwelling. Recruitment of crabs tended to be higher during neutral conditions, but this varied among sites. In contrast to invertebrates, kelp abundance seemed to be controlled by post-settlement processes, as reflected by fewer kelp juveniles after La Nina when the abundance of herbivore fishes strongly increased. Our results highlight the importance of evaluating the effects of ENSO at early ontogenetic stages rather than on adult populations, which are less likely to be affected in an upwelling-dominated system.

Conservación de la biodiversidad en Chile: Nuevos desafíos y oportunidades en ecosistemas terrestres y marinos costeros

La perdida de la biodiversidad producida por el crecimiento demografico, la demanda por recursos y la actividad productiva es contradictoria con el reconocimiento de su importancia. En ecosistemas terrestres, el Sistema Nacional de Areas Protegidas del Estado (SNASPE) contiene cerca del 19 % del territorio de Chile continental; aunque no representa todos los ecosistemas con especies amenazadas, puede ser complementado implementando nuevas areas protegidas publicas (AP) y privadas (APP). El desarrollo de areas marinas protegidas (AMP) es incipiente, y algunas iniciativas comparten la responsabilidad de conservacion con los usuarios locales. En Chile, un conjunto de reglamentos, normas legales y tratados internacionales promueven distintas oportunidades de conservacion en ecosistemas terrestres y marinos costeros, de las cuales emergen nuevos desafios. Entre estos destacan, estandarizar la clasificacion de especies segun categorias de conservacion en un protocolo internacional y optimizar las metodologias para seleccionar areas prioritarias, ambos criterios indispensables para decidir que y donde conservar. Otro desafio es integrar el valor intrinseco de la biodiversidad con los servicios ecosistemicos que presta para instaurar una cultura participativa. Esto mejoraria la efectividad de las distintas estrategias de proteccion y uso sustentable de la biodiversidad al incorporar la educacion y la participacion ciudadana desde una perspectiva biocultural. La educacion fomenta la conservacion de la naturaleza al hacernos conscientes de nuestro entorno; mientras que la participacion involucra a los ciudadanos como un actor mas en la toma de decisiones, procurando la aplicacion efectiva de las estrategias de conservacion de la biodiversidad.