Carol C. Irwin

Urban Minority Youth Swimming (In)Ability in the United States and Associated Demographic Characteristics: Toward a Drowning Prevention Plan

Objective: To examine swimming ability and variables associated with swimming for US inner-city, minority children. Empirical research on minority children’s swimming ability is non-existent, and drowning rates for this population are high. Design: Cross-sectional survey research. Descriptive statistics were produced. Multiple regression was applied using significant demographic variables by swimming ability. Setting: Six US cities were chosen (Chicago, Illinois; Houston, Texas; Memphis, Tennessee; Miami, Florida; Oakland, California; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) facilities were used to solicit subjects. Subjects: A large sample (n = 1680) was gathered, which targeted poor, minority children. Parents of children aged 4–11 years and adolescents (12–17 years) completed surveys that research team members or trained YMCA staff supervised during non-swimming YMCA programmes. Results: African–American respondents reported a 57.5% “at risk” (unable to swim or uncomfortable in deep end of pool) swimming ability. Hispanic/Latino children confirmed a 56.2% “at risk” level as compared with 30.9% for white subjects. Age, sex, child’s lunch programme, parental education and race variables were all significantly (p<0.05) related to swimming ability. Regression analysis revealed that all demographic variables fell into a significant model (p<0.001) as predictor variables. Conclusions: Poor minority children, specifically African–American and Hispanic/Latino, are at a significant disadvantage concerning swimming ability. Female subjects were notably more “at risk” regarding their swimming ability than male subjects. Age, race and socioeconomic factors (lunch programme and parental education) were significantly associated with children who have low swimming ability.

The legacy of fear: Is fear impacting fatal and non-fatal drowning of African American children?

African American children’s rates for fatal and non-fatal drowning events are alarmingly elevated, with some age groups having three times the rate as compared to White peers. Adequate swimming skills are considered a protective agent toward the prevention of drowning, but marginalized youth report limited swimming ability. This research examined minority children’s and parents/caregivers’ fear of drowning as a possible variable associated with limited swimming ability. Results confirmed that there were significant racial differences concerning the fear of drowning, and adolescent African American females were notably more likely to fear drowning while swimming than any other group. The “fear of drowning” responses by parents/ caregivers of minority children were also significantly different from their White counterparts.

Sport stacking activities in school children's motor skill development.

This study examined the impact of a 12-wk. sport stacking intervention on reaction time (RT), manual dexterity, and hand-eye coordination in elementary school-aged children. 80 Grade 2 students participated in a 15-min. sport stacking practice session every school day for 12 wk., and were tested on psychomotor performance improvement. Tests for choice RT, manual dexterity, and photoelectric rotary pursuit tracking were conducted pre- and post-intervention for both experimental group (n = 36) and the controls (n = 44) who did no sport stacking. Students who had the intervention showed a greater improvement in two-choice RT. No other group difference was found. Such sport stacking activities may facilitate childrens central processing and perceptual-motor integration.

Advanced-placement Physical Education: An Opportunity to Act

In this article, the authorspropose that it is time to begin the process of creating and launching advanced-placement classes in schools that are focused on physical education.

Predictors of Swimming Ability among Children and Adolescents in the United States

Swimming is an important source of physical activity and a life skill to prevent drowning. However, little research has been conducted to understand predictors of swimming ability. The purpose of this study was to understand factors that predict swimming ability among children and adolescents in the United States (US). This was a cross-sectional survey conducted between February and April of 2017 across five geographically diverse cities. Participants were accessed through the Young Christian Men’s Association (YMCA) and included parents of children aged 4–11 years old and adolescents aged 12–17 years old. Independent t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted. Several factors were significant (p ≤ 0.05) predictors of swimming ability and explained 53% of the variance in swimming ability. Variables that were positively associated with swimming ability included: ability of parent(s) to swim, child/adolescent age, a best friend who enjoys swimming, water-safety knowledge, pool open all year, and encouragement to swim from parent(s). Variables that were negatively associated with swimming ability included: fear of drowning, being African American, and being female. Interventions and programs to improve the swimming ability of children and adolescents could be developed with these predictors in mind.

Using systematic observation to assess teacher effectiveness promoting personally and socially responsible behavior in physical education

ABSTRACT National content standards in PE address responsibility; however, learning outcomes and teacher effectiveness in this area remain poorly defined. This study employed the Social and Emotional Learning framework and a teaching personal and social responsibility (TPSR) model fidelity instrument to address this gap. Our purpose was to examine the utility of the Tool for Assessing Responsibility-based Education (TARE) in assessing teacher effectiveness promoting responsibility. We conducted a comparative case study of three PE teachers in an urban public high school. Data sources included observations, interviews, and artifacts. Findings indicate that the TARE is a feasible instrument to assess PE teachers’ effectiveness in promoting responsibility. Data were sufficient to develop distinct teacher profiles. While the TARE is a TPSR fidelity instrument, it is also a valid and reliable observation instrument that can be applied in the context of practice. Implications for professional development and research are discussed.

Youth Swimming Ability and Associated Factors in the United States, 2010-17

Objective Learning to swim is recommended for children to prevent drowning and to promote lifelong physical activity. Dissimilar US youth swimming ability rates by demographics have been reported. Our research purpose was to examine youth swimming ability by selected variables, and to compare with similar research in 2010. Methods USA Swimming Foundation sponsored a cross-sectional study in 5 US cities during 2017. Trained YMCA personnel administered surveys measuring self-reported swimming ability among youth, ages 4-18 (N = 1373). We compared the 2017 results with findings from the 2010 study (N = 1741). Results In 2017, fewer respondents reported no/low swimming ability. However, groups were identified with a high percentage (greater than 50%) of no/low swimming ability including the following ones; girls, African-American boys and girls, and boys and girls who participate in free or reduced-cost lunch programs. Multivariate analysis showed that significant predictors for lower swimming ability were parent education (less than college education), qualifying for free or reduced-cost lunch programs, and being African-American. Conclusion No/low swimming ability groups were identified and continue to need support. Interventions should target children who are African-American, qualify for free or reduced-cost lunch, and have parents with lower levels of education.