Carol Gilligan

The Consequence of Tree Pests and Diseases for Ecosystem Services

Background Trees are major components of many terrestrial ecosystems and are grown in managed plantations and orchards to provide a variety of economically important products, including timber, pulp, fiber, and food. They are subject to a wide range of pests and diseases, of which the most important causative agents are viruses, bacteria, fungi, oomycetes, and insect herbivores. Research on tree pests and diseases has had a historical focus on trees of direct economic importance. However, some epidemics and infestations have damaged and killed common trees that are integral parts of natural ecosystems. These have harmed valuable landscapes and highlighted the wide-ranging consequences arising from tree pests and diseases. There is also growing concern that aspects of globalization—in particular, higher volumes and new forms of trade—may increase the risk of disease spread. A forest providing numerous ecosystem services is subject to a disease epidemic that reduces the abundance of a dominant native species, resulting in a change in forest structure. Initially, a wide range of ecosystem services (A to D) are harmed. But as trees grow to replace lost species, some (perhaps carbon storage or water purification) are regained, whereas others (perhaps the biodiversity supported by the diseased tree species) are permanently disrupted. Policy measures can both help prevent new diseases being introduced (the first stage) or improve recovery through management practices or planting resistant trees. Advances We review the challenges in maintaining tree health in natural and managed ecosystems. It is argued that it is helpful to consider explicitly the consequences of pests and diseases for the full range of ecosystem services provided by trees. In addition to forest and orchard products, tree pests and diseases can affect the ability of forests to sequester and store carbon, reduce flood risk, and purify water. They can affect the biodiversity supported by trees and the recreational and cultural values accorded to woodland by people. Many of these benefits are uncosted and enjoyed by different classes of stakeholders, which raises difficult questions about who should be responsible for measures to protect tree health. Changes in the risk of pest and disease introduction, the increasing prevalence of genetic reassortment leading to novel disease threats, and the potential role of climate change are all highlighted. Outlook Modern pest and disease management is based on an extensive science base that is rapidly developing, spurred in particular by modern molecular technologies. A research priority is to build a better understanding of why certain pathogens and insects become major pests and diseases. This will involve a better understanding of the molecular basis of pathogenicity and herbivory, as will ecological insights into why some species reach epidemic prevalence or abundance. It will also help anticipate which species may become a problem if they are transported to new geographical regions, recombine with other organisms, or experience new climatic conditions. However, identifying all species that may become pests will be impossible, and the Review stresses the importance of risk management at the “pathway of introduction” level, especially when modern trade practices provide potential new routes of entry. Last, when ecosystem services are provided by woods and forests rather than individual tree species, we need to understand better the consequences of pests and diseases that attack or feed on particular species. Dead Wood Trees can be affected by a wide variety of diseases caused by insects, fungi, and other pathogens. Such diseases often make the headlines—particularly when iconic tree species are affected—for example, in the case of the ash dieback currently spreading through Europe, or the chestnut blight that devastated American chestnut trees. But what is the effect of these diseases on ecosystem services performed by trees in natural and managed ecosystems? Boyd et al. (p. 10.1126/science.1235773 ) review the spread of tree diseases, as a result of globalization and climate change, and analyze the resulting damage to timber and fruit production, to climate regulation, and to parks and woodlands caused by tree diseases. Trees and forests provide a wide variety of ecosystem services in addition to timber, food, and other provisioning services. New approaches to pest and disease management are needed that take into account these multiple services and the different stakeholders they benefit, as well as the likelihood of greater threats in the future resulting from globalization and climate change. These considerations will affect priorities for both basic and applied research and how trade and phytosanitary regulations are formulated.

Moral Development in Late Adolescence and Adulthood: a Critique and Reconstruction of Kohlberg’s Theory

This article provides an alternative conception of postconventional moral development which fits existing data on late adolescent and adult moral judgment better than Kohlberg’s hig

Gender differences in the age-changing relationship between instrumentality and family contact in emerging adulthood.

Data from the Children in the Community Transitions Study were used to examine gender differences in the impact of family contact on the development of finance and romance instrumentality from ages 17 to 27 years. Family contact decreased among both men and women across emerging adulthood, although it decreased more rapidly in men than in women. Both finance and romance instrumentality increased for men and women across emerging adulthood. The growth rate did not differ between men and women in either domain, although men tended to be characterized by higher levels of instrumentality than women. There were noteworthy gender differences in the impact of family contact on the development of instrumentality. At age 17, family contact was negatively associated with instrumentality for both men and women; at age 27, the impact of family contact on instrumentality was less negative for women and was positive for men.

One action, two moral orientations— The tension between justice and care voices in Israeli selective conscientious objectors

Abstract Two concepts of the highly moral person are analyzed by contrasting two views of moral action, couched in terms of the moral voices of justice and care, in the moral judgments made by Israeli selective conscientious objectors during the war in Lebanon (1982–1985). It is argued that the highly moral person, as typified in Kohlberg, manifests responsible moral action particularly in situations conceptualized as requiring “resistance to temptation,” where not acting or objecting to action is justified as right and just. The case of Michael Bernhardt, who claimed that he did not shoot at My Lai, is the example frequently given by Kohlberg. A contrasting view of the highly moral actor and of moral responsibility in situations such as My Lai is offered. These situations are conceptualized as calling for action, where response to people in need is called for. Both modes of action might be viewed as morally appropriate within the same situation and by the same actor. The tension between these two conceptions of moral action appears clearly in the dilemmas described by some of the Israeli soldiers who refused to fight in Lebanon.

Sex Differences and Interpersonal Relationships: A Cross-Sectional Sample in the U.S. and India

This study introduces a methodology for exploring sex differences and life span patterns in a small sample for the purpose of generating hypotheses concerning the frequency and kinds of relationships people identify as important. Sixty-two participants from the United States and India, ranging in age from nineteen to seventy-five were interviewed as part of a study on ego and moral development. These open-ended, semistructured interviews yielded information on relationships that was subsequently coded for analysis. Sex differences were found in the number of relationships mentioned, with females mentioning a higher number of relationships than males. Life span patterns regarding the number of relationships mentioned were different for men and women between ages nineteen to thirty-one, with women naming more relationships. At age thirty-five there was a convergence in the number of relationships mentioned by both sexes. This age also was the low point in the number of relationships mentioned by both sexes, with later life ages (50–75) the high point for both. The most marked differences in the kinds of relationships mentioned occurred between the two cultures. The U.S. participants mentioned parents and immediate family more often, while the Indian participants mentioned extended and collateral kin more often. These findings support the literature suggesting that there are developmental sex differences regarding the salience of interpersonal relationships. In addition, several age related patterns appear concerning frequency and types of relationships considered important.

From Adolescence to Adulthood: The Rediscovery of Reality in a Postconventional World

The formally operational adolescent lives in a world of possibility. Between the concrete and traditional structures that anchored his childhood world and the choices that will define his adulthood lies the expansive universe of the hypothetical. Fascination turns from what is to what might or could be, and as the alternatives proliferate, it becomes clear that formal operations can lead from adolescence to infinity or, perhaps, to adolescence infinitely. Standing at this peak of cognitive assimilation, the adolescent has been proclaimed both metaphysician and philosopher; no longer a child, he is not yet an adult, and our interest lies in the nature of the transition from adolescence to adulthood as it occurs in the moral realm. We begin at that place in development where the hypothetico-deductive mind of the adolescent turns to morality and questions not only the content but also the premises of a conventional moral philosophy. Our concern is with the nature of these questions and with the various forms of their resolution.

Free association and the grand inquisitor: A drama in four acts

Abstract The discovery that free association can undo dissociation is the psychological equivalent to discovering fire. Psychoanalysis began with this discovery, but its liberatory promise became constrained. With the shift in emphasis from dissociated knowledge to the unconscious, a cure through love became wedded to miracle, mystery, and authority. In the 1970s, as winds of liberation swept through society, the authority of psychoanalysis was questioned and its patriarchal underpinnings exposed. Free association, it turned out, had been bound to the voice and law of the father. The question raised by Dostoevskys Grand Inquisitor becomes a question for our time: was he right in his assessment that people find love and freedom too burdensome? Research in developmental psychology and neurobiology suggests he was not and points to the ways that tensions within psychoanalysis mirror tensions between democracy and patriarchy and reflect the dissonance between a voice grounded in the body and emotion and a voice wedded to what we now recognize as a false story about ourselves.

Reconstructing Law and Marriage

Professor Davis joins feminist scholar Carol Gilligan in an admiring critique of Nancy Cott‘s ground-breaking book, Public Vows, A History of Marriage and the Nation.

Listening as a path to psychological discovery: an introduction to the Listening Guide

A Qualitative Space highlights research approaches that push readers and scholars deeper into qualitative methods and methodologies. Contributors to A Qualitative Spacemay: advance new ideas about qualitative methodologies, methods, and/or techniques; debate current and historical trends in qualitative research; craft and share nuanced reflections on how data collection methods should be revised or modified; reflect on the epistemological bases of qualitative research; or argue that some qualitative practices should end. Share your thoughts on Twitter using the hashtag: #aqualspace

The experience of receiving scholarship aid and its effect on future giving: a listening guide analysis

ABSTRACT Why are there so many people who receive scholarship aid who do not give back to the schools that gave it? Social exchange theories grounded in the assumption of direct reciprocity have long been the framework used within higher education to understand donative behavior. As a result, conventional wisdom within higher education holds that recipients of scholarship aid will later donate money to the institution that provided it. However, the philanthropic data show that most aid recipients do not, in fact, give back. This study probes the underlying factors for this phenomenon by using the Listening Guide, a voice-centered relational method of discovery, to analyze and interpret interviews with 10 scholarship recipients. By providing a more robust understanding of the experience of receiving, the findings challenge some of the most basic psychological and sociological assumptions about giving and generosity within higher education.