Carol Goodenow

Classroom Belonging among Early Adolescent Students Relationships to Motivation and Achievement

Early adolescentssense of classroom belonging and support-of being liked, respected, and valued by fellow students and by the teacher-was investigated among 353 sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade middle school students. Focusing on one academic class, students completed scales of classroom belonging and support, expectancies for success, and intrinsic interest and value; course grades and effort ratings were obtained from English teachers. Each of three belonging/support factors identified by principal components analysis contributed significantly to explaining variance in expectancies and value, with teacher support having the most consistently substantial influence across student subgroups. The strength of association between support and motivation dropped significantly from sixth to eighth grade. Teacher support was more closely related to motivation for girls than for boys. Expectancy was the primary predictor of class effort and grades. These findings underscore the importance of belonging and interpersonal support in fostering academic motivation and achievement.

Quality of social support and associated social and psychological functioning in women with rheumatoid arthritis.

Using a cross-sectional interview study of 194 women with rheumatoid arthritis, investigated the relationship between health status, social integration, qualitative aspects of social support, and social and psychological functioning in the presence of a chronic, disabling disease. Even after controlling for the influences of current physical limitations and social integration, qualitative dimensions of social support as measured by the Quality of Social Support Scale, a scale developed for this study, explained a significant proportion of the variance in home and family functioning and in depression.

AIDS-Related Risk Among Adolescent Males Who Have Sex With Males, Females, or Both: Evidence From a Statewide Survey

OBJECTIVES This study examined the prevalence of AIDS-related risk behaviors among adolescent males with female, male, and both-sex sexual partners and explored factors related to these behaviors. METHODS Three waves of a population-based survey provided data on male high school students: 3065 with only female sexual partners, 94 with only male partners, and 108 with both. Logistic regression analyses were used to examine AIDS-related outcomes. RESULTS Youths with any same-sex experience reported less school AIDS education. Bisexual experience predicted multiple sexual partners, unprotected intercourse, sexually transmitted disease, and injection drug use. School AIDS education and condom instruction predicted less AIDS-related risk. CONCLUSIONS Bisexually active adolescent males report especially high levels of AIDS risk behavior. School-based AIDS prevention should address the needs of all sexually active youths.

Condom Availability Programs in Massachusetts High Schools: Relationships With Condom Use and Sexual Behavior

OBJECTIVES This study assessed relationships between condom availability programs accompanied by community discussion and involvement and adolescent sexual practices. METHODS Sexual practice and condom use differences were assessed in a representative sample of 4166 adolescents enrolled in high schools with and without condom availability programs. RESULTS Adolescents in schools where condoms were available were more likely to receive condom use instruction and less likely to report lifetime or recent sexual intercourse. Sexually active adolescents in those schools were twice as likely to use condoms, but less likely to use other contraceptive methods, during their most recent sexual encounter. CONCLUSIONS The strategy of making condoms available, an indication of socioenvironmental support for condom use, may improve HIV prevention practices.

Dimensions of sexual orientation and HIV-related risk among adolescent females: evidence from a statewide survey.

OBJECTIVES We examined the relationship of 2 dimensions of sexual orientation--sexual identity and sex of partners--with self-reported behaviors and experiences to identify factors that may place adolescent females at risk of HIV/AIDS. METHODS We gathered data on sexually experienced female high school students from 4 waves of a population-based survey. We used logistic regression analyses to investigate the association between their sexual identity (3666 heterosexual; 184 lesbian, gay, or bisexual; 113 not sure) and sex of partners (3714 male only, 79 female only, and 180 both males and females) with HIV-related risk behaviors. RESULTS Self-defined sexual identity was often inconsistent with sex of sexual partners. Sexual identities other than heterosexual and having same-sex partners (either exclusively or in addition to male partners) were associated with high rates of several HIV-related risk behaviors. Coerced sexual contact was significantly associated with every risk outcome. AIDS education in school predicted lower HIV risk on 4 of 6 indicators. CONCLUSIONS Programs to prevent HIV infection among adolescent females should take into account the complexity of sexual orientation and should address the needs and behaviors of sexual-minority youths.

The impact of rheumatoid arthritis on the homemaker

Few current studies of the effects of chronic conditions on social functioning examine the effects of disease on the role of homemaker. A major problem confronting researchers in this area is the difficulty in operationalizing dysfunction in social roles other than work roles. In this study we have developed a measure of homemaker functioning based on conceptualizing the homemaker role on two dimensions: the instrumental functions associated with meeting the physical needs of the household and the nurturant dimension concerned with meeting the expressive needs of the household. We used our measure of homemaker functioning to study the effects of rheumatoid arthritis on 142 women, whether employed outside the home or not, between the ages of 21 and 65, all living with husband and/or children at the time of disease onset. The disease significantly limited both instrumental and nurturing functions associated with managing a household. The more strenuous instrumental functions were more likely to be limited, although women in our study experienced serious limitations in nurturant role functions, as well. Limitations in functioning along the nurturant dimension were surprisingly high and previously undocumented. Comparisons between women employed outside the home and those not employed found few differences between the groups in social functioning on either dimension of the homemaker role. Employed women were somewhat less physically disabled than the unemployed, but both groups of homemakers continued to assume major responsibility for homemaking. Assessing functioning in social roles other than work, and functioning in nurturant as well as instrumental areas, is especially important in evaluating the effects on women of a chronic disease such as rheumatoid arthritis.

An investigation of social support and burnout among residential counselors

Maslach and Jacksons (1986) three dimensions of burnout, emotional exhaustion, lack of personal accomplishment and depersonalization, were investigated among 78 counselors at a short-term, residential treatment facility for emotionally disturbed children and adolescents. Two waves of data were collected so that possible changes in burnout over time could be assessed. Measures of co-worker support (team cohesion and perceived quality of friendships) were better predictors of burnout than supervisor support. High levels of co-worker support were consistently and positively related to greater personal accomplishment. Levels of personal accomplishment increased and emotional exhaustion decreased as staff accumulated more counseling experience. Women residential counselors experienced higher levels of emotional exhaustion than did their male counterparts. Initial levels of burnout were powerful predictors of later levels of burnout. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings for human services providers are discussed.

The effect of reward on compliance with breast self-examination

Based on a behavioral analysis of compliance with breast self-examination (BSE), this study replicates a previously successful stimulus control intervention and tests the effectiveness of two types of reward for increasing compliance: external reward and self-reward. Patient volunteers (N=153) were randomly assigned to experimental conditions and followed for 1 year, equally divided into experimental and postexperimental periods. Compliance was measured by the monthly return of BSE records, with self-reports used as a secondary measure. The results indicate that external reward was most effective; self-reward was used by only half the participants but was effective when used. In the postexperimental period, all rates of record return declined, especially in the external reward group. A cycle-by-cycle analysis indicates that the decline was gradual except for a sharp drop when the external reward was withdrawn. The results are discussed in terms of the acceptability of both interventions and contingencies.

A comparison of weight-related behaviors among high school students who are homeless and non-homeless:

BACKGROUND Previous research has shown that youth who are homeless engage in high-risk behaviors. However, there has been little information published on nutritional and physical activity behaviors in this population, and studies comparing homeless youth in school with their non-homeless peers are scarce. This study compares weight-related risk behaviors of public high school students in Massachusetts based on homeless status. METHODS We obtained data from 3264 9th through 12th grade students who participated in the 2005 Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Multivariable logistic regression, controlling for gender, grade, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation, was performed to assess the relationship between homeless status as defined by the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act and weight-related indicators. Analyses were weighted and adjusted for the multistage complex sampling design. RESULTS Of this sample, 4.2% reported being homeless (n = 152). Higher prevalence of homelessness was found among males, racial/ethnic minorities, sexual minorities, and students who were not in a traditional grade level. The distribution of body mass index was similar among students who were homeless and non-homeless (underweight 4.0 and 3.0%, and overweight 27.1 and 27.1%, respectively). Homeless students were more likely than non-homeless students to report disordered weight-control behaviors including fasting (aOR 2.5, 95% CI 1.4-4.5) and diet pill use (aOR 3.3, 95% CI 1.6-6.9). CONCLUSIONS More than 4% of public high school students in Massachusetts meet the federal definition of homelessness. These students are at high risk for disordered weight-control behaviors. Policy decisions at the school, state, and federal levels should make a concerted effort to target these students with social services and nutritional interventions.

Corliss et al. Respond

The letter by Rice et al. provides further evidence that sexual-minority adolescents are at greater risk for homelessness than adolescents in general. To understand the scope of the problem nationally, we strongly urge surveillance mechanisms, such as the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), to collect standardized data on sexual orientation and homelessness. In addition to Massachusetts, a number of other state and regional YRBSSs collect sexual orientation data. Standardizing sexual orientation questions across surveys and increasing the number of surveys that collect these data will improve our ability to quantify the scope of the problem. Additionally, we suggest using a homeless question like the one in the Massachusetts YRBSS1 because it is based on the McKinney-Vento2 federal definition of homelessness (i.e., lacking a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence) and provides detailed information on type of living situation and unaccompanied status. As Rice et al. note, there is great variation in homelessness by region. There are also regional differences in attitudes toward homosexuality and gender-role norms.3,4 Systematic data collection will allow us to examine how risk for homelessness in sexual-minority teens may vary by region and other sociodemographic characteristics such as race/ethnicity and gender. The 2005 Massachusetts YRBSS estimated that 4.2% of Massachusetts public high school students were homeless, yet only 0.6% of Massachusetts high school students were identified by schools as homeless during the 2004–2005 academic year.5 Health and social service professionals need to do a better job working with schools to identify homeless students and to link them with services to find stable housing, to assist them with their educational needs, and to support their health and well-being. In public health, these efforts are known as secondary (i.e., intervening early to end homelessness) and tertiary (i.e., providing services to those currently homeless such as temporary shelter, food, and other social and medical services) prevention efforts. Equally important are primary prevention efforts that focus on preventing homelessness in the first place. Efforts to identify effective primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention strategies for sexual-minority youth at risk for homelessness are clearly needed. What strategies help families overcome challenges leading to sexual-minority teen homelessness? Are programs in schools and communities for homeless youth effective at reaching sexual minorities and addressing their specific needs? Because homeless sexual-minority teens are likely to be unaccompanied by their parents/guardians, does this influence their access to shelter-based and other services? Answers to these and other questions will help us eliminate the unconscionable sexual orientation disparities in youth homelessness.