Carol S. Camlin

Gender, Migration and HIV in Rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Objectives Research on migration and HIV has largely focused on male migration, often failing to measure HIV risks associated with migration for women. We aimed to establish whether associations between migration and HIV infection differ for women and men, and identify possible mechanisms by which womens migration contributes to their high infection risk. Design Data on socio-demographic characteristics, patterns of migration, sexual behavior and HIV infection status were obtained for a population of 11,677 women aged 15–49 and men aged 15–54, resident members of households within a demographic surveillance area participating in HIV surveillance in 2003–04. Methods Logistic regression was conducted to examine whether sex and migration were independently associated with HIV infection in three additive effects models, using measures of recent migration, household presence and migration frequency. Multiplicative effects models were fitted to explore whether the risk of HIV associated with migration differed for males and females. Further modeling and simulations explored whether composition or behavioral differences accounted for observed associations. Results Relative to non-migrant males, non-migrant females had higher odds of being HIV-positive (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.72; 95% confidence interval [1.49–1.99]), but odds were higher for female migrants (aOR = 2.55 [2.07–3.13]). Female migrants also had higher odds of infection relative to female non-migrants (aOR = 1.48 [1.23–1.77]). The association between number of sexual partners over the lifetime and HIV infection was modified by both sex and migrant status: For male non-migrants, each additional partner was associated with 3% higher odds of HIV infection (aOR = 1.03 [1.02–1.05]); for male migrants the association between number of partners and HIV infection was non-significant. Each additional partner increased odds of HIV infection by 22% for female non-migrants (aOR = 1.22 [1.12–1.32]) and 46% for female migrants (aOR = 1.46 [1.25–1.69]). Conclusions Higher risk sexual behavior in the context of migration increased womens likelihood of HIV infection.

Texting improves testing: a randomized trial of two-way SMS to increase postpartum prevention of mother-to-child transmission retention and infant HIV testing.

Objective:Many sub-Saharan African countries report high postpartum loss to follow-up of mother–baby pairs. We aimed to determine whether interactive text messages improved rates of clinic attendance and early infant HIV testing in the Nyanza region of Kenya. Design:Parallel-group, unblinded, randomized controlled trial. Methods:HIV-positive pregnant women at least 18 years old and enrolled in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV programme were randomized to receive either text messages (SMS group, n = 195) or usual care (n = 193). Messages were developed using formative focus group research informed by constructs of the Health Belief Model. The SMS group received up to eight text messages before delivery (depending on gestational age), and six messages postpartum. Primary outcomes included maternal postpartum clinic attendance and virological infant HIV testing by 8 weeks postpartum. The primary analyses were intention-to-treat. Results:Of the 388 enrolled women, 381 (98.2%) had final outcome information. In the SMS group, 38 of 194 (19.6%) women attended a maternal postpartum clinic compared to 22 of 187 (11.8%) in the control group (relative risk 1.66, 95% confidence interval 1.02–2.70). HIV testing within 8 weeks was performed in 172 of 187 (92.0%) infants in the SMS group compared to 154 of 181 (85.1%) in the control group (relative risk 1.08, 95% confidence interval 1.00–1.16). Conclusions:Text messaging significantly improved maternal postpartum visit attendance, but overall return rates for these visits remained low. In contrast, high rates of early infant HIV testing were achieved in both arms, with significantly higher testing rates in the SMS compared to the control infants.

Short-Term Mobility and the Risk of HIV Infection among Married Couples in the Fishing Communities along Lake Victoria, Kenya

Objective Mobility has long been associated with high HIV prevalence. We sought to assess sex differences in the relationship between mobility and risk for HIV infection among married couples in the fishing communities. Methods We conducted 1090 gender-matched interviews and rapid HIV testing with 545 couples proportionally representing all the different sizes of the fish-landing beaches in Kisumu County. We contacted a random sample of fishermen as our index participants and asked them to enrol in the study together with their spouses. The consenting couples were separated into different private rooms for concurrent interviews and thereafter reunited for couple rapid HIV counselling and testing. In addition to socio-economic and behavioural data, we collected information on overnight travels and divided couples in 4 groups as follows both partners not mobile, both partners mobile, only woman mobile, and only man mobile. Other than descriptive statistics, we used X2 and U tests to compare groups of variables and multivariate logistic regression to measure association between mobility and HIV infection. Results We found significant differences in the number of trips women travelled in the preceding month (mean 4.6, SD 7.1) compared to men (mean 3.3, SD 4.9; p<0.01) and when the women did travel, they were more likely to spend more days away from home than their male partners (mean 5.2 [SD 7.2] versus 3.4 SD 5.6; p = 0.01). With an HIV prevalence of 22.7% in women compared to 20.9% among men, mobile women who had non-mobile spouses had 2.1 times the likelihood of HIV infection compared to individuals in couples where both partners were non-mobile. Conclusion The mobility of fishermen’s spouses is associated with HIV infection that is not evident among fishermen themselves. Therefore, interventions in this community could be a combination of sex-specific programming that targets women and combined programming for couples.

Fertility Trend and Pattern In A Rural Area of South Africa In The Context of HIV/AIDS

Little is known about the dynamics of fertility transition in South Africa, though recent studies have begun to shed light on demographic changes in the country. This study presents trends and patterns of fertility observed in a rural South African population. Various demographic and statistical techniques were used to examine fertility patterns in a population of 21,847 women in a rural KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) demographic surveillance area. These are compared with patterns seen in another South African rural population under demographic surveillance, and with data from the 1998 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey. Findings are interpreted in light of contraceptive use patterns and HIV prevalence in the population. In South Africa, the end of the fertility transition is now in sight. In rural KZN, where national fertility levels are highest, fertility has declined rapidly for about two decades and would have reached below replacement level in 2003. While fertility has declined rapidly among all women over age 18 years, fertility levels among adolescents have not changed in decades. Although most adolescents in rural KZN were sexually active (60%), few had ever used contraception (200%). High HIV seroprevalence appears to explain a small part of the fertility decline (12%); however, this effect is likely to grow in the near future as the HIV/AIDS epidemic continues in South Africa. If the current trends continue in the future, below replacement fertility, together with high mortality due to AIDS, it could soon lead to negative natural population growth in rural South Africa.

Obstetric hemorrhage and shock management: using the low technology Non-pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment in Nigerian and Egyptian tertiary care facilities

BackgroundObstetric hemorrhage is the leading cause of maternal mortality globally. The Non-pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment (NASG) is a low-technology, first-aid compression device which, when added to standard hypovolemic shock protocols, may improve outcomes for women with hypovolemic shock secondary to obstetric hemorrhage in tertiary facilities in low-resource settings.MethodsThis study employed a pre-intervention/intervention design in four facilities in Nigeria and two in Egypt. Primary outcomes were measured mean and median blood loss, severe end-organ failure morbidity (renal failure, pulmonary failure, cardiac failure, or CNS dysfunctions), mortality, and emergency hysterectomy for 1442 women with ≥750 mL blood loss and at least one sign of hemodynamic instability. Comparisons of outcomes by study phase were assessed with rank sum tests, relative risks (RR), number needed to treat for benefit (NNTb), and multiple logistic regression.ResultsWomen in the NASG phase (n = 835) were in worse condition on study entry, 38.5% with mean arterial pressure <60 mmHg vs. 29.9% in the pre-intervention phase (p = 0.001). Despite this, negative outcomes were significantly reduced in the NASG phase: mean measured blood loss decreased from 444 mL to 240 mL (p < 0.001), maternal mortality decreased from 6.3% to 3.5% (RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.35-0.89), severe morbidities from 3.7% to 0.7% (RR 0.20, 95% CI 0.08-0.50), and emergency hysterectomy from 8.9% to 4.0% (RR 0.44, 0.23-0.86). In multiple logistic regression, there was a 55% reduced odds of mortality during the NASG phase (aOR 0.45, 0.27-0.77). The NNTb to prevent either mortality or severe morbidity was 18 (12-36).ConclusionAdding the NASG to standard shock and hemorrhage management may significantly improve maternal outcomes from hypovolemic shock secondary to obstetric hemorrhage at tertiary care facilities in low-resource settings.

Developing content for a mHealth intervention to promote postpartum retention in prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission programs and early infant diagnosis of HIV: A qualitative study

Background Maternal attendance at postnatal clinic visits and timely diagnosis of infant HIV infection are important steps for prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV. We aimed to use theory-informed methods to develop text messages targeted at facilitating these steps. Methods We conducted five focus group discussions with health workers and women attending antenatal, postnatal, and PMTCT clinics to explore aspects of womens engagement in postnatal HIV care and infant testing. Discussion topics were informed by constructs of the Health Belief Model (HBM) and prior empirical research. Qualitative data were coded and analyzed according to the construct of the HBM to which they related. Themes were extracted and used to draft intervention messages. We carried out two stages of further messaging development: messages were presented in a follow-up focus group in order to develop optimal phrasing in local languages. We then further refined the messages, pretested them in individual cognitive interviews with selected health workers, and finalized the messages for the intervention. Results Findings indicated that brief, personalized, caring, polite, encouraging, and educational text messages would facilitate women bringing their children to clinic after delivery, suggesting that text messages may serve as an important “cue to action.” Participants emphasized that messages should not mention HIV due to fear of HIV testing and disclosure. Participants also noted that text messages could capitalize on womens motivation to attend clinic for childhood immunizations. Conclusions Applying a multi-stage content development approach to crafting text messages – informed by behavioral theory – resulted in message content that was consistent across different focus groups. This approach could help answer “why” and “how” text messaging may be a useful tool to support maternal and child health. We are evaluating the effect of these messages on improving postpartum PMTCT retention and infant HIV testing in a randomized trial.

Effects of a multicomponent intervention to streamline initiation of antiretroviral therapy in Africa: a stepped-wedge cluster-randomised trial

BACKGROUND In Africa, up to 30% of HIV-infected patients who are clinically eligible for antiretroviral therapy (ART) do not start timely treatment. We assessed the effects of an intervention targeting prevalent health systems barriers to ART initiation on timing and completeness of treatment initiation. METHODS In this stepped-wedge, non-blinded, cluster-randomised controlled trial, 20 clinics in southwestern Uganda were randomly assigned in groups of five clinics every 6 months to the intervention by a computerised random number generator. This procedure continued until all clinics had crossed over from control (standard of care) to the intervention, which consisted of opinion-leader-led training and coaching of front-line health workers, a point-of-care CD4 cell count testing platform, a revised counselling approach without mandatory multiple pre-initiation sessions, and feedback to the facilities on their ART initiation rates and how they compared with other facilities. Treatment-naive, HIV-infected adults (aged ≥18 years) who were clinically eligible for ART during the study period were included in the study population. The primary outcome was ART initiation 14 days after first clinical eligibility for ART. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01810289. FINDINGS Between April 11, 2013, and Feb 2, 2015, 12 024 eligible patients visited one of the 20 participating clinics. Median CD4 count was 310 cells per μL (IQR 179-424). 3753 of 4747 patients (weighted proportion 80%) in the intervention group had started ART by 2 weeks after eligibility compared with 2585 of 7066 patients (38%) in the control group (risk difference 41·9%, 95% CI 40·1-43·8). Vital status was ascertained in a random sample of 208 patients in the intervention group and 199 patients in the control group. Four deaths (2%) occurred in the intervention group and five (3%) occurred in the control group. INTERPRETATION A multicomponent intervention targeting health-care worker behaviour increased the probability of ART initiation 14 days after eligibility. This intervention consists of widely accessible components and has been tested in a real-world setting, and is therefore well positioned for use at scale. FUNDING National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) and the Presidents Emergency Fund for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR).

Assessing the role of the non-pneumatic anti-shock garment in reducing mortality from postpartum hemorrhage in Nigeria.

Background/Aims: Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal mortality. The non-pneumatic anti-shock garment (NASG), a first-aid lower-body pressure device, may decrease mortality. Methods: This pre-intervention/NASG study of 288 women was conducted in four referral facilities in Nigeria, 2004–2008. Entry criteria: women with PPH due to uterine atony, retained placenta, ruptured uterus, vaginal or cervical lacerations or placenta accreta with estimated blood loss of ≧750 ml and one clinical sign of shock. Differences in demographics, conditions on study entry, treatment and outcomes were examined. t tests and relative risks with 95% confidence intervals were calculated for primary outcomes – measured blood loss and mortality. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to examine independent association of the NASG with mortality. Results: Mean measured blood loss decreased by 80% between phases. Women experienced 350 ml of median blood loss after study entry in the pre-intervention and 50 ml in the NASG phase (p < 0.0001). Mortality decreased from 18% pre-intervention to 6% in the NASG phase (RR = 0.31, 95% CI 0.15–0.64, p = 0.0007). In a multiple logistic regression model, the NASG was associated with reduced mortality (odds ratio 0.30; 95% CI 0.13–0.68, p = 0.004). Conclusion: The NASG shows promise for reducing mortality from PPH in referral facilities in Nigeria.

Parental Investment, Club Membership, and Youth Sexual Risk Behavior in Cape Town

This study examines whether parental investment and membership in social clubs are associated with safer sexual behaviors among South African youth. Participants comprised 4,800 randomly selected adolescents age 14 to 22 living in the Cape Town area in 2002. Logistic regression was used to examine associations between measures of parental investment and associational membership with reported condom use at first and most recent sexual intercourse, net of effects of HIV knowledge, age, education, population group, parental coresidence, and household income. Interaction terms were used to examine gender differences in associations between risk behavior and parental investment and between risk behavior and group membership. Participation in clubs and community groups is associated with safer behaviors. A mothers financial support (for clothing, school fees and uniforms, and pocket money) is negatively associated with condom use, particularly among young women, suggesting that material need impels vulnerability to higher risk behaviors. Social resources in households and communities mediate HIV risk behaviors among youth in Cape Town.

Men "missing" from population-based HIV testing: insights from qualitative research.

ABSTRACT Men’s uptake of HIV testing is critical to the success of “test and treat” strategies in generalized epidemics. This study sought to identify cultural factors and community processes that influence men’s HIV testing uptake in the baseline year of an ongoing test-and-treat trial among 334,479 persons in eastern Africa (SEARCH, NCT#01864603). Data were collected using participant observation at mobile community health campaigns (CHCs) (n = 28); focus group discussions (n = 8 groups) with CHC participants; and in-depth interviews with care providers (n = 50), leaders (n = 32), and members (n = 112) of eight communities in Kenya and Uganda. An 8-person research team defined analytical codes and iteratively refined them during data collection using grounded theoretical approaches, and textual data were coded using Atlas.ti software. Structural and cultural barriers, including men’s mobility and gender norms valorizing risk-taking and discouraging health-seeking behavior, were observed, and contributed to men’s lower participation in HIV testing relative to women. Men’s labor opportunities often require extended absences from households: during planting season, men guarded fields from monkeys from dawn until nightfall; lake fishermen traveled long distances and circulated between beaches. Men often tested “by proxy”, believing their wives’ HIV test results to be their status. Debates about HIV risks were vigorous, with many men questioning “traditional” masculine gender norms that enhanced risks. The promise of antiretroviral therapy (ART) to prolong health was a motivating factor for many men to participate in testing. Flexibility in operating hours of HIV testing including late evening and weekend times along with multiple convenient locations that moved were cited as facilitating factors enhancing male participating in HIV testing. Mobile testing reduced but did not eliminate barriers to men’s participation in a large-scale “test & treat” effort. However, transformations in gender norms related to HIV testing and care-seeking are underway in eastern Africa and should be supported.