Carola van Eijk

Why engage in co-production of public services? Mixing theory and empirical evidence

Through processes of co-production, citizens collaborate with public service agents in the provision of public services. Despite the research attention given to co-production, some major gaps in our knowledge remain. One of these concerns the question why citizens engage in processes of co-production of public services. In this article, a theoretical model is built that brings the human factor into the study of co-production. The model explains citizens’ engagement in co-production referring to citizens’ perceptions of the co-production task and of their competency to contribute to the public service delivery process, citizens’ individual characteristics, and their self-interested and community-focused motivations. Empirical evidence from four co-production cases in the Netherlands and Belgium is used to demonstrate the model’s usefulness. The academic and practical relevance of the findings and suggestions for further research are discussed. Points for practitioners Governments seek ways to engage a broad range of citizens, especially as only a limited number of citizens respond to government’s initiatives to involve citizens. Insights about citizens’ engagement are tested in four cases: Client councils in health care organizations for elderly persons and in organizations for disabled people, representative advisory councils at primary schools, and neighborhood watches. Practitioners can learn more about what drives citizens to engage in co-production. This enables them to improve their methods of participant recruitment.

Co-producing safety in the local community: A Q-methodology study on the incentives of Belgian and Dutch members of neighbourhood watch schemes

ABSTRACT This study aims to explain citizens’ engagement in co-production activities in the domain of community safety. We use a multiple case study design by looking at neighbourhood watch schemes in Belgium and the Netherlands. We applied Q-methodology to map the opinions of citizens about their co-productive efforts, and to cluster these opinions into co-producers’ profiles. Discussing differences and similarities in profiles enables a more generalised understanding of the reasons why people co-produce. We conclude with some policy-relevant points about incentivation when local governments want to achieve an increase in citizen co-production.

In or Out: Developing a Categorization of Different Types of Co-Production by Using the Critical Case of Dutch Food Safety Services

The understanding of co-production as a concept is fragmented; there are many different definitions and many cases are labeled co-production. Two dimensions seem to be important in most definitions: the ability of the co-producer to self-produce or to produce the same product without input from others and the extent to which co-producers’ participation is voluntary. Based on these dimensions, this article develops a typology of co-production. It is shown that cases in which involuntariness is combined with a high ability of self-production are rare. This article contributes to the literature by studying such a case, namely Dutch food safety services.ABSTRACT The understanding of co-production as a concept is fragmented; there are many different definitions and many cases are labeled co-production. Two dimensions seem to be important in most definitions: the ability of the co-producer to self-produce or to produce the same product without input from others and the extent to which co-producers’ participation is voluntary. Based on these dimensions, this article develops a typology of co-production. It is shown that cases in which involuntariness is combined with a high ability of self-production are rare. This article contributes to the literature by studying such a case, namely Dutch food safety services.

Growing Access to Local Decision-Making? Explaining Variation among Dutch Municipalities in the Institutional Measures to Promote Citizen Participation

ABSTRACT: Dutch municipalities have taken several institutional measures to promote citizen participation. The used measures differ widely, however, from one municipality to the next: some try to innovate, while others keep the level of participation measures at the lowest possible level. This study tries to explain those differences. Contrary to other studies, it uses a quantitative approach and does not focus on the impact of participatory policies. Instead, the article aims to better understand what drives institutional design. The article demonstrates that differences between municipalities can best be explained by variables at the institutional and political levels, although it also observes that possible explanatory variables correlate highly.

Waarom burgers coproducent willen zijn: Een theoretisch model om de motivaties van coproducerende burgers te verklaren

Coproductie is een vorm van publieke dienstverlening waarbij burgers en professionals samenwerken bij het managen en leveren van diensten en samen zorgen voor kwali‐ teitsborging. De overheid biedt verschillende mogelijkheden voor burgers om als copro‐ ducent op te treden, maar niet iedere burger besluit ook daadwerkelijk mee te doen. Hoewel er een groeiende belangstelling bestaat voor coproductie, zijn de inzichten in de motivaties van coproducerende burgers beperkt. Dit artikel richt zich op het individuele niveau om de motivatie van burgers te verklaren en maakt hierbij gebruik van inzichten uit verschillende literatuurstromingen. Het model wordt getoetst aan de hand van een casus over Nederlandse buurtpreventieteams.1

Helping Dutch Neighborhood Watch Schemes to Survive the Rainy Season: Studying Mutual Perceptions on Citizens’ and Professionals’ Engagement in the Co-Production of Community Safety

Despite the growing research interest in co-production, some important gaps in our knowledge remain. Current literature is mainly concerned with either the citizens or professionals being involved in co-production, leaving unanswered the question how co-producers and professionals perceive each other’s engagement, and how this is reflected in their collaboration. This study aims to answer that question, conducting an exploratory case study on neighborhood watch schemes in a Dutch municipality. Empirical data are collected through group/individual interviews, participant observations, and document analysis. The results show that the perceptions citizens and professionals hold on their co-production partner’s engagement indeed impact on the collaboration. Moreover, for actual collaboration to occur, citizens and professionals not only need to be engaged but also to make this engagement visible to their co-production partner. The article concludes with a discussion of the practical implications of these findings.RésuméMalgré l’intérêt croissant des chercheurs envers la coproduction, nos connaissances comptent toujours de grandes lacunes. À l’heure actuelle, la littérature se concentre surtout sur les citoyens ou les professionnels impliqués dans la coproduction, laissant les questions suivantes sans réponse: que pensent les coproducteurs et les professionnels de leur engagement réciproque et comment cette perception se reflète-t-elle dans leur collaboration? La présente étude exploratoire de cas portant sur des modèles de vigie de quartier d’une municipalité néerlandaise tente de répondre à ces questions. Les données empiriques proviennent d’entrevues de groupe/individuelles, de séances d’observation des participants et d’analyse de documents. Les résultats démontrent que la perception des citoyens et des professionnels envers l’engagement de leur partenaire de coproduction influence la collaboration. Qui plus est, pour qu’il y est réellement collaboration, les citoyens et les professionnels doivent non seulement être engagés, mais ils doivent aussi démontrer cet engagement de façon tangible à leur partenaire. L’article se conclut sur une discussion des implications pratiques desdites découvertes.ZusammenfassungTrotz eines wachsenden Forschungsinteresses an Gemeinschaftsproduktionen gibt es noch einige wesentliche Wissenlücken. Die gegenwärtige Literatur beschäftigt sich hauptsächlich entweder mit den Bürgern oder den Fachkräften, die an einer Gemeinschaftsproduktion beteiligt sind, wobei die Frage außer Acht bleibt, wie Koproduzenten und Fachkräfte ihr gegenseitiges Engagement wahrnehmen und wie sich dies in ihrer Zusammenarbeit widerspiegelt. Die vorliegende Studie möchte diese Frage beantworten und führt eine explorative Fallstudie über Nachbarschaftswachen in einer holländischen Gemeinde durch. Die empirischen Daten werden mittels Gruppen- und Einzelinterviews, Teilnehmerbeobachtungen und einer Dokumentenanalyse erfasst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich die Wahrnehmungen der Bürger und Fachkräfte hinsichtlich des Engagements ihrer Koproduktionspartner in der Tat auf die Zusammenarbeit auswirken. Und damit eine tatsächliche Zusammenarbeit erfolgt, müssen Bürger und Fachkräfte nicht nur engagiert sein, sondern ihr Engagement auch ihren Koproduktionspartnern gegenüber deutlich machen. Abschließend werden in dem Beitrag die praktischen Implikationen dieser Ergebnisse diskutiert.ResumenA pesar del creciente interés de la investigación en la coproducción, permanecen algunos vacíos importantes en nuestro conocimiento. El material publicado actual se refiere principalmente a los ciudadanos o profesionales implicados en la coproducción, dejando sin responder la pregunta de cómo perciben los coproductores y los profesionales el compromiso mutuo, y cómo esto se refleja en su colaboración. El presente estudio tiene como objetivo responder a esa pregunta, realizando un estudio de caso exploratorio sobre los esquemas de vigilancia vecinal en un municipio holandés. Se recopilan datos empíricos mediante entrevistas individuales/grupo, observaciones de los participantes y análisis de documentos. Los resultados muestran que las percepciones que los ciudadanos y los profesionales mantienen sobre el compromiso de sus socio de coproducción verdaderamente tienen impacto sobre la colaboración. Asimismo, para que se produzca la colaboración real, los ciudadanos y los profesionales no sólo necesitan implicarse sino también hacer visible dicho compromiso a su socio de coproducción. El artículo concluye con un debate sobre las implicaciones prácticas de estos hallazgos.Chinese尽管对合作生产研究的兴趣不断增长,但我们的了解仍存在较大的差距。当前文献主要集中于参与共同生产的居民或专业人员,未涉及共同生产者和专业人员对彼此参与的看法,以及这如何反应到协作。本研究旨在回答这一问题,对荷兰市政当局的邻里观察计划进行探讨性的案例研究。通过群体/个人采访、参与者观察和文档分析收集了经验数据。结果表明,居民和专业人员就共同生产合作伙伴的参与的看法的确会影响其协作。此外,要进行实质的协作,居民和专业人员不仅需要参与,而且需要让这一参与对其共同生产合作伙伴可见。本文以这些调查结果的实际含义的讨论结束。Japanese急発展する共生産における研究への関心は高いが、知識には重大なギャップがある。現在の文献は、主として共生産に関与する市民あるいは専門家に関するものである。どのように共生産者と専門家が事業を認識しあっているか、どのように協力関係において影響を与えているかという疑問は未解決のままである。本研究はドイツの自治体における近隣の監視計画の事例と探索的事例を用いて、その質問に答えた。実証的事例は、グループ・個人のインタビュー、参加者の観察、文書分析から集められた。結果から、市民、専門家の認識は、共生産のパートナーの事業活動を行うだけでなく、協力関係に影響を与えることがわかった。さらに、実際の事業では、市民や専門家が従事するだけでなく、共生産のパートナーを可視化することがわかった。本論文では、この結果から実用的な影響について議論する。Arabicعلى الرغم من الإهتمام المتزايد للبحوث في الإنتاج المشترك، لا تزال هناك بعض الفجوات الهامة في معرفتنا. فالأدبيات الحالية تتعلق أساسا” بالمواطنين أو المهنيين الذين يشاركون في الإنتاج المشترك، مما يترك سؤال عن كيفية نظر المنتجين والمختصين المشاركين في مشاركة بعضهم البعض، و كيف ينعكس ذلك في تعاونهم. تهدف هذه الدراسة إلى الإجابة على هذا السؤال، إجراء دراسة حالة إستكشافية دراسة حالة عن مشاريع مراقبة الأحياء في بلدية هولندية. تم جمع البيانات التجريبية من خلال المقابلات الجماعية/الفردية، ملاحظات المشاركين، وتحليل الوثائق. تظهر النتائج أن بقاء تصورات المواطنين والمهنيين على مشاركة شريك الإنتاج المشترك لها في الواقع يؤثر على التعاون. علاوة على ذلك، من أجل حدوث تعاون فعلي، لا يلزم إشراك المواطنين والمهنيين فحسب، بل أيضا” لجعل هذه المشاركة مرئية لشريك الإنتاج المشترك. يختتم المقال بمناقشة للآثار العملية لهذه النتائج.