Caroline S. Clauss-Ehlers

Violence and Community, Terms in Conflict: An Ecological Approach to Resilience

The authors provide a description of the impact that violence has on U.S. Latino and Mexican youth, discuss vulnerability factors, and describe cultural-community resilience that acts as a buffer against violence. An ecological model is presented that incorporates community structures, the cultural values of familismo, respeto, and personalismo, and addresses how to decrease the stigma associated with seeking mental health services. It is thought that the variables and values in particular ecosystems must be examined to determine how the individual responds to the surrounding community.

Responses to Terrorism

Perhaps no other event in the history of our nation was as broadly traumatizing as the events of the September 11, 2001 disaster. Much of the population in the United States (U.S.) and in other nations were traumatized by the events related to their magnitude; tremendous loss of human life; constant media coverage and repeated exposure to horrific images; the heroic activities and injuries and deaths of police, fire-fighting and rescue staff; and the uncertainty of imminent or future terrorist attacks, among many factors (see Weist, et al., 2002). These traumatic events were followed relatively closely in time by Anthrax attacks, sniper shootings, continued escalation in terrorism in places around the world, especially the Middle East, war in Afghanistan, and now war in Iraq. In this new century and millennium, it indeed is a new world, characterized by stresses, concerns and traumas at levels unexperienced by many Americans and citizens of other nations. Terrorism and disaster have particularly strong effects on children and adolescents (Waddel & Thomas, 1999). However, even youth most affected by the September 11 disaster are resuming their lives, and showing resilience in their school, social and emotional functioning.

Introduction: Making the Case for Culturally Responsive School Mental Health

For over two decades, the school mental health (SMH) movement has shown progressive growth in the United States (U.S.) and other countries based on some straightforward and compelling realities. First, child and adolescent mental health is among the most neglected of all health care needs, with 20 % or more of children and youth presenting more concerning emotional and behavioral challenges, but less than one-third of these youth receiving any services (President’s New Freedom Commission on Mental Health, 2003). Moreover, for those youth who do receive services there are serious questions about the quality of services received, with true evidence-based practice (EBP) being relatively rare, quality improvement often focused on variables such as fee-for-service productivity, and nonevidence based, even harmful services being widespread (see Evans & Weist, 2004; Weist et al., 2007).

White American Attitudes in Interracial Situations: An Empirical Examination of Perceived Behavioral Options and White Racial Identity

Abstract The societal trend that involves pressure to stay within the boundary of ones particular racial group in the United States was investigated. Canonical correlation was used to explore the idea that a persons psychological orientation to race influences subsequent behaviors in interracial social scenarios. The results indicated that differences in White racial identity attitudes predicted social distance in interracial social scenarios. White racial identity attitudes that contributed most strongly to the relationship between racial identity and perceptions of discriminatory behavior were Reintegration and Disintegration. Autonomy and Pseudo-Independent attitudes were most likely to capture the nondiscriminatory behavioral component of the canonical variate. The findings are congruent with racial identity literature and support the position that racial identity differences are an important factor in interracial relationships. Implications for counseling and training are discussed as are directions for future research.

A Framework for School - Based Mental Health Promotion with Bicultural Latino Children: Building on Strengths to Promote Resilience

Biculturalism is presented as a model of acculturation that challenges linear models of cultural acquisition. Biculturalism is considered a viable alternative for how we conceptualize living at the juncture of two cultures. Different acculturative styles are discussed that include alienation/marginalization, separation, assimilation and biculturalism. Literature on the stressors and strengths that relate to bicultural experience is reviewed. A framework for building initiatives for bicultural Latino children that addresses these unique stressors and works to enhance strengths is introduced. Directions for future research are emphasized.

Next Steps: Advancing Culturally Competent School Mental Health

Chapter 19 of this Handbook offers some concluding thoughts. The first part of this chapter presents an overview of critical themes and advancements evident in each of the Handbook’s major sections (i.e., research, innovation, and specific problems). This section is followed by a discussion of key outstanding issues relevant to culturally competent school mental health (SMH). The chapter concludes with recommendations for next steps and guidelines about how to formulate a call to action for the provision of culturally responsive SMH.

Working with Forced Migrant Children and their Families: Mental Health, Developmental, Legal, and Linguistic Considerations in the Context of School-Based Mental Health Services

While many understand the meaning of the term immigration generally, individuals are often less aware of what is meant by forced migration. In addition to fleeing from their home countries and experiencing harrowing journeys, upon arriving in a safe country, forced migrants often endure a lengthy, complicated legal process to gain residency in their host countries. The forced migratory experience is frequently compounded by post migration stressors similar to those faced by other immigrants, such as learning a new language and culture, adjusting to a new gender and familial roles as well as a new, educational system, accessing services, and learning new skills (Akinsulure-Smith, Ghiglione, & Wollmershauser, 2009; Blanch, 2008; Drachman, 1995; Miller, Worthington, Muzurovic, Tipping, & Goldman, 2002; Sue & Sue, 2008; van der Veer, 1998). While many refugees and asylum seekers are able to adjust to life in the United States (U.S.) without significant stress, some are at risk for emotional difficulties that can have devastating consequences such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety. In addition, forced migrants may also experience intense grief as a result of multiple losses experienced, even after resettling in a safe environment (Athey & Ahearn, 1991; Fazel, Wheeler, & Danesh, 2005; Keyes, 2000; Lustig et al., 2004; Porter & Haslam, 2005; Rousseau, 1995).

The Racial/Ethnic Identity Development of Tomorrow’s Adolescent

Adolescents across racial/ethnic group memberships often experience some degree of confusion and maladaptive symptoms as they sort through the potential components of their personal and ethnic identities (Luyckx et al., 2008; Schwartz, Zamboanga, Weisskirch, & Rodriguez, 2009). The similarities of this process do not end there; research indicates that the structures of both ethnic identity (Roberts et al., 1999) and personal identity (Schwartz, Cote, & Arnett, 2005) are consistent across ethnic groups. Helms (1990) defined racial identity as a “sense of group or collective identity based on the perception that one shares a common racial heritage with a particular group” (as cited by Phelps, Taylor, & Gerard, 2001, p. 210). Ethnic identity, on the other hand, is conceptualized as “the study of attitudes about one’s own ethnicity” (Phinney, 1990, p. 499) and may include ethnic group membership self-identification, a sense of belonging, and attitudes one holds toward their ethnic group (Phinney, 1992). As our society becomes more global and welcoming of greater racial/ethnic diversity, the study of racial/ethnic identity development becomes even more salient for adolescents (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002; Schwartz et al., 2009). A major goal of this chapter is to address the aspects of both racial and ethnic identity development among adolescents. This goal is accomplished in part by linking theories of adolescent identity development to the experiences of diverse youth.