Caroline S. Weckerle

Purine alkaloids in Paullinia

Among the few purine alkaloid-containing genera consumed as stimulants, Paullinia is the least investigated with respect to both chemotaxonomy and within-the-plant allocation of caffeine and its allies. Since purine alkaloids (PuA) have been proved to be valuable marker compounds in chemotaxonomy, 34 species of Paullinia and related genera were screened for them, but only one, P. pachycarpa, was positive in addition to the already known P. cupana and P. yoco. The PuA allocation in P. pachycarpa was examined and found to be restricted to theobromine in the stem, leaves and flowers. Moreover, the theobromine concentration in the stem cortex increased significantly towards the base of the plant. Since the stem cortex of P. yoco is traditionally used by the natives of Colombia and Ecuador to prepare a caffeine-rich beverage, we suspected that within the genus Paullinia the PuA are preferentially allocated to the older parts of the stem and not to young shoots like e.g., in the coffee plant (Coffea spp.). Indeed, the axis (greenhouse) of P. cupana (guaraná), known for its caffeine-rich seeds, exhibited a basipetal PuA gradient (0.005-0.145%). Moreover, the analysis of young cortex samples (herbarium) and of one piece of old stem (museum collection) revealed the same for P. yoco, even though we found much less (0.5 vs 2.5%) caffeine in the old cortex as compared to the only two analyses in 1926 of similar material. However, this discrepancy may be explained by the high variability of the PuA pattern we detected among yoco, the diversity of which the Indians take advantage.

Quantitative methods in ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology: considering the overall flora--hypothesis testing for over- and underused plant families with the Bayesian approach.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE We introduce and explain the advantages of the Bayesian approach and exemplify the method with an analysis of the medicinal flora of Campania, Italy. The Bayesian approach is a new method, which allows to compare medicinal floras with the overall flora of a given area and to investigate over- and underused plant families. In contrast to previously used methods (regression analysis and binomial method) it considers the inherent uncertainty around the analyzed data. MATERIALS AND METHODS The medicinal flora with 423 species was compiled based on nine studies on local medicinal plant use in Campania. The total flora comprises 2237 species belonging to 128 families. Statistical analysis was performed with the Bayesian method and the binomial method. An approximated χ(2)-test was used to analyze the relationship between use categories and higher taxonomic groups. RESULTS Among the larger plant families we find the Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, and Malvaceae, to be overused in the local medicine of Campania and the Orchidaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Poaceae, and Fabaceae to be underused compared to the overall flora. Furthermore, do specific medicinal uses tend to be correlated with taxonomic plant groups. For example, are the Monocots heavily used for urological complaints. CONCLUSIONS Testing for over- and underused taxonomic groups of a flora with the Bayesian method is easy to adopt and can readily be calculated in excel spreadsheets using the excel function Inverse beta (INV.BETA). In contrast to the binomial method the presented method is also suitable for small datasets. With larger datasets the two methods tend to converge. However, results are generally more conservative with the Bayesian method pointing out fewer families as over- or underused.

People, money, and protected areas: the collection of the caterpillar mushroom Ophiocordyceps sinensis in the Baima Xueshan Nature Reserve, Southwest China

The caterpillar mushroom Ophiocordyceps sinensis (syn. Cordyceps sinensis) is among the most valuable mushrooms in the world, and plays a major role for the local economies in its distribution area on the Tibetan Plateau and adjacent regions. Large proportions of its habitat fall into protected areas, and best practice of sustainable harvest is under discussion, considering both, O. sinensis as a valuable income source for rural poor and protection of its populations and habitat. This study aims for a detailed analysis of O. sinensis collection in a nature reserve in Southwest China. We found that harvesting is unevenly distributed among households and villages, with households who have access to the resource but lack adequate alternatives for income generation such as rewarding wage labor, fertile agricultural fields or harvest of other high value products being most involved. Although collection is de jure forbidden, authorities of the nature reserve apply adaptive management strategies for sustainable resource use. This includes the allocation of collection areas to communities based on their traditional land use strategies and the control of harvesters from outside, triggering self-policing of the resource by the local people. The strategies applied provide a promising model also for other protected areas where the caterpillar mushroom is collected.

Mao's heritage: Medicinal plant knowledge among the Bai in Shaxi, China, at a crossroads between distinct local and common widespread practice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The study focuses on medicinal plant knowledge among the Bai in the Shaxi Valley, Northwest Yunnan, where no ethnobotanical study has been conducted so far. In an area of high biodiversity, distinct medicinal plant knowledge is documented and the influence of herbals on local knowledge is revealed. AIM OF THE STUDY To analyse current medicinal plant knowledge among the Bai in the context of the influence of the Han culture and mainstream Chinese herbal medicine. MATERIALS AND METHODS During fieldwork in summer 2005, semistructured interviews were conducted with 68 stakeholders, and voucher specimens of all plants mentioned were prepared. RESULTS A total of 176 medicinal plant species were documented and 1133 use-reports have been collected. Overall, 91.5% of the documented plants are already established as known drugs, and are mentioned in books on medicinal plants in Yunnan and China. Furthermore, the way in which they are used largely coincides. Fourteen plant species represent novel recordings, 9 of which were independently mentioned by three or more informants. CONCLUSIONS The medicinal plant knowledge of the Bai is strongly influenced by mainstream Chinese herbal medicine and especially by medicinal plant books from the 1970s, which were distributed under Mao Zedongs directive to improve rural health care. We conclude that these herbals have exerted, and continue to exert, a strong influence on the standardisation of plant knowledge among rural populations in China. However, distinct local use of plants also exists, indicating that plant knowledge specific to the Bai people is alive and practiced.

Medicinal plant use in two Andean communities located at different altitudes in the Bolívar Province, Peru.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The study documents current medicinal plant knowledge and use in two Andean communities and depicts the dynamic nature of ethnobotanical relationships by illustrating cultural integration of biomedicine and local plant medicine into a complementary system. AIM OF THE STUDY In order to elucidate the importance of medicinal plants, the following research questions were addressed: Which position do medicinal plants have in the local health care system? Which plants are used medicinally, and do they differ between the communities? Is their use supported pharmacologically? MATERIALS AND METHODS Fieldwork was done for seven months in 2010. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 120 informants in Uchumarca and Pusac/San Vicente de Paúl, and the medicinal plant species mentioned by the informants were vouchered. RESULTS In total, 2776 plant remedy use reports were recorded. Most people in both communities know at least some medicinal plants, usually from their parents, grandparents, sometimes from books. There are different types of local plant specialists, who are consulted above all for the treatment of diseases thought to have a magical origin or for recommendations of plants to treat minor diseases. Overall, 140 medicinal plants were documented, with a conformity of over 90% between the communities. The effective use of the most frequently cited medicinal plants is supported by scientific literature. Most uses were reported for the treatment of gastrointestinal (17%), nervous (14%), respiratory (14%), urological (13%) and dermatological diseases (8%); nervous diseases were more prevalent in the mountain community, while dermatological and urological diseases were more common in the valley. CONCLUSIONS People combine medicinal plant use and biomedicine depending on the kind of disease, their beliefs, and their economic situation. The local use of different available medical resources is reflected by the combination of related epistemologies to explain disease causes. Medicinal plant use and biomedicine complement each other to form the local health care system.

Medicinal plant use in Vanuatu: A comparative ethnobotanical study of three islands

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Our study shows that large parts of Vanuatus medicinal flora remain unexplored and that a high variability of medicinal plant knowledge between islands exists. AIM OF THE STUDY The following questions are comparatively analyzed for three islands of Vanuatu: who are the medicinal plant specialists and how important is their knowledge today? Which plants are used to treat common diseases? MATERIALS AND METHODS On Loh, Ambrym and Aneityum plant related information was collected using semi-structured interviews, transect walks and participant observation. A total of 29 medicinal plant specialists were interviewed. RESULTS Medicinal plant specialists are either peasants or people with a high rank in the local social system such as members of the chiefs family or priests. Their knowledge may be very broad (Loh, Aneityum) or specialized on specific diseases (Ambrym). Medicinal plant knowledge is transmitted family and gender specific (Loh) or gender and family independent (Ambrym and Aneityum). Overall, 133 medicinal plant species were documented of which 117 are new to Vanuatus ethnopharmacopoeia. Mainly members of the Euphorbiaceae and Fabaceae, followed by Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Moraceae and Zingiberaceae are utilized. The majority of documented species are trees (33%), followed by herbs (22%) and shrubs (21%). Leaves accounted for the highest number of use reports (43%). The highest diversity of medicinal plants is found for the most common diseases such as skin, gastrointestinal, respiratory system and urogenital system diseases. Only a small overlap of taxa between the islands was found. CONCLUSIONS The biocultural diversity of Vanuatu is reflected in the variability of medicinal plant knowledge and differences in the traditional medicinal system between the three islands investigated. Traditional medicine is more vital on remote islands. The better connected the islands are to the main city, the more dominant western medicine becomes and traditional medicine mainly remains to treat illnesses with a magical origin.

Livelihood and Conservation Aspects of Non-wood Forest Product Collection in the Shaxi Valley, Southwest China(1)

Livelihood and Conservation Aspects of Non-wood Forest Product Collection in the Shaxi Valley, Southwest China. The Shaxi Valley in Yunnan Province, P.R. China, is inhabited by Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups. We found a clear dichotomy between household strategies in the valley bottom and the mountain areas, with significantly lower household income in the mountains. The majority Bai people live predominantly in the fertile valley floor and cultivate rice, keep livestock, and commonly pursue off-farm work. Other ethnic groups live in more remote mountainous areas of the Shaxi Valley, where the collection of non-wood forest products, especially wild mushrooms, plays an important role in securing livelihoods. However, only households in the valleys central villages engage in the profitable non-wood forest product trade. Mushroom populations appear to be less vulnerable to commercial harvest than the rapidly declining wild medicinal plant populations. Due to this decline, local farmers have gained interest in cultivating medicinal plants, but only if risks are low and if financial and technical support is provided. Encouraging the cultivation of medicinal plants appears to be an appropriate means of sustainable community development.摘要中国西南地区沙溪流域的非木材林产品采集与生计和保护的关系. 沙溪流域位于中国西南地区的云南省剑川县南部, 居住有白、汉、彝、僳僳、纳西等多个藏-缅语系的少数民族。我们发现:在同一流域内, 山区农户的收入远不及坝区高, 两地的家庭生计策略大相径庭; 流域的主体民族白族居住在平坦而肥沃的坝区, 以种植水稻、发展畜牧业以及寻找一些非农收入作为生计发展策略, 而居住在边远山区的其他一些少数民族, 多以采集和销售非木材林副产品, 特别是菌类以维系生计, 但从事非木材林副产品经销的人主要是来自坝区中心村寨村民。研究还发现:由于商业化采集, 当地的野生药用植物资源锐减, 而菌类资源受威胁程度较小; 如果风险不大, 资金和技术有保障, 当地农户对种植药材表现出浓厚的兴趣, 因此鼓励药材种植应是当地实现可持续发展的有效途径。

Best practice in research: Consensus Statement on Ethnopharmacological Field Studies – ConSEFS

BACKGROUND Ethnopharmacological research aims at gathering information on local and traditional uses of plants and other natural substances. However, the approaches used and the methods employed vary, and while such a variability is desirable in terms of scientific diversity, research must adhere to well defined quality standards and reproducible methods OBJECTIVES: With ConSEFS (the Consensus Statement on Ethnopharmacological Field Studies) we want to define best-practice in developing, conducting and reporting field studies focusing on local and traditional uses of medicinal and food plants, including studies using a historical approach. METHODS After first developing an initial draft the core group invited community-wide feedback from researchers both through a web-based consultation and a series of workshops at conferences during 2017. OUTCOMES The consultation resulted in a large number of responses. Feedback was received via a weblink on the Journal of Ethnopharmacologys website (ca. 100 responses), other oral and written responses (ca. 50) and discussions with stakeholders at four conferences. The main outcome is a checklist, covering best practice for designing, implementing and recording ethnopharmacological field studies and historical studies. CONCLUSIONS Prior to starting ethnopharmacological field research, it is essential that the authors are fully aware of the best practice in the field. For the first time in the field of ethnopharmacology a community-wide document defines guidelines for best practice on how to conduct and report such studies. It will need to be updated and further developed. While the feedback has been based on responses by many experienced researchers, there is a need to test it in practice by using it both in implementing and reporting field studies (or historical studies), and peer-review.

Comparative Morphology and Systematic Position of Averrhoidium within Sapindaceae

The Neotropical genus Averrhoidium (Sapindaceae) is classified in Doratoxyleae (Radlkofer 1934) and comprises four species with disjunct distribution: Averrhoidium dalyi is found in east Peru and northwest Brazil, Averrhoidium gardnerianum in east Brazil, Averrhoidium paraguaiense in Paraguay, and Averrhoidium spondioides in west Mexico. All species are dioecious subcanopy trees. Here we present for the first time observations on living material and detailed morphological and anatomical data of leaves, flowers, and dehisced fruits of A. dalyi. This information contributes to a more complete circumscription of the genus Averrhoidium. The type of seed presentation observed for Averrhoidium is found to be unique and remarkable for Sapindaceae: the one‐seeded capsules dehisce, allowing the placenta and parts of the septa to turn outward like a tongue, while the single seed, with a conspicuous white sarcotesta, is still fixed to the placenta. It is dangling between neighboring undehisced red capsules and presumably attracts birds. Comparison of the structural features of the four Averrhoidium species shows that they are morphologically closely related, differing only in leaf characters (size, leaflet number, margin, secondary vein number, anatomy) and in their distribution area. A cladistic analysis of morphological data derived from literature and herbarium specimens confirms the position of Averrhoidium within Dodonaeoideae‐Doratoxyleae as proposed by Radlkofer (1934). However, Doratoxyleae sensu Radlkofer (1934) appear to be paraphyletic, including two sapindoid taxa.

An imprecise probability approach for the detection of over and underused taxonomic groups with the Campania (Italy) and the Sierra Popoluca (Mexico) medicinal flora

AIM OF THE STUDY We use the IDM model to test for over- and underuse of plant taxa as source for medicine. In contrast to the Bayes approach, which only considers the uncertainty around the data of medicinal plant surveys, the IDM model also takes the uncertainty around the inventory of the flora into account, which is used for the comparison between medicinal and local floras. MATERIALS AND METHODS Statistical analysis of the medicinal flora of Campania (Italy) and of the medicinal flora used by the Sierra Popoluca (Mexico) was performed with the IDM model and the Bayes approach. For Campania 423 medicinal plants and 2237 vascular plant species and for the Sierra Popoluca 605 medicinal plants and 2317 vascular plant species were considered. RESULTS The IDM model (s=4) indicates for Campania the Lamiaceae and Rosaceae as overused, and the Caryophyllaceae, Poaceae, and Orchidaceae as underused. Among the Popoluca the Asteraceae and Piperaceae turn out to be overused, while Cyperaceae, Poaceae, and Orchidaceae are underused. In comparison with the Bayes approach, the IDM approach indicates fewer families as over- or underused. CONCLUSIONS The IDM model leads to more conservative results compared to the Bayes approach. Only relatively few taxa are indicated as over- or underused. The larger the families (n(j)s) are, the more similar do the results of the two approaches turn out. In contrast to the Bayes approach, small taxa with most or all species used as medicine (e.g., n(j)=2, x(j)=2) tend not to be indicated as overused with the IDM model.