Carolyn D. Berdanier

Advanced nutrition: macronutrients, micronutrients, and metabolism

Energy Definition Energy Need Energy Retained Energetic Efficiency Utilizable Energy Thermogenesis Abnormal Energy States Starvation and Undernutrition Protein-Energy Malnutrition Trauma and Energy Needs Obesity Body Composition Set Point Theory in Body Weight Regulation Morbidity of Severely Obese People Treatment of Obesity Drugs for the Treatment of Obesity References Regulation of Food Intake Psychological Aspects of Food Intake Physiological Aspects of Food Intake Sensory Perception of Food Appearance Texture Smell (Olfaction) and Gustation (Taste) Neuronal Signals for Hunger and Satiety Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Abnormal Appetite: Pica References Nutritional Biochemistry Glycolysis Hexose Monophosphate Shunt Interconversion of Dietary Sugars Fructose Contents Galactose Mannose Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis Gluconeogenesis Cori and Alanine Cycles Oxidative Phosphoylation Mitochondrial Structure and Function Respiration and the Citric Acid Cycle Respiratory Chain ATP Synthesis Uncoupling Proteins Metabolic Control: Oxidative Phosphorylation Oxidative Phosphorylation Fatty Acid Synthesis Fatty Acid Elongation Fatty Acid Desaturation Fatty Acid Esterification Fatty Acid Oxidation Cholesterol Synthesis Amino Acid Catabolism Amino Acid Derivatives Creatine Phosphate Choline Polyamines References Cell Cycle, Life Cycle Cell Structure and Function Receptors Signal Systems Cell Differentiation Apoptosis Life Cycle Growth and Development Aging References Nutrigenomics and Epigenetics Gene Expression Gene Structure Mutation or Polymorphisms Synthesis of Purines and Pyrimidines Transcription Epigenetic Control of Chromatin Structure and Function Genetic Diseases of Interest to Nutrition References Protein Amino Acids Chemistry Stereochemistry Acid-Based Properties Reactions Amino Acid Derivatives Creatine phosphate Choline Polyamines Peptides Protein Structure Protein Denaturation Classification of Proteins Classification by Solubility and Prosthetic Groups Glycoproteins Lipoproteins Nucleoproteins Other Conjugated Proteins Classification by Function Classification by Nutritive Value Protein Analysis Biological Value of Dietary Protein (BV) Protein Use Digestion Absorption Metabolism Hormones: Regulators of Protein Metabolism Protein Turnover Protein Degradation Functions of Proteins Proteins as Enzymes Proteins as Carriers and Receptors Proteins as Regulators of Water Balance Proteins as Biological Buffers Proteins as Structural Elements and Structural Units Proteins as Lubricants Proteins in the Immune System Proteins as Signaling Molecules Protein Intake Recommendations Age Environmental Temperature Previous Diet Physical Activity Protein Deficiency Kwashiorkor Marasmus Protein and Amino Acid Interactions with Other Nutrients Vegetarian Diets Renal Disease Integration of the Metabolic Features of Protein Nutrition References Carbohydrates Classification Structure and Nomenclature Monosaccharides Stereoisomeric Forms Anomeric Forms Oligosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides Storage Polysaccharides Structural Polysaccharides Mucopolysaccharides Sources of Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption Metabolism Glucose Homeostasis Abnormalities in the Regulation of Glucose Homeostasis: Diabetes Mellitus Prevalence of Diabetes The Glucose Tolerance Test Definition of Different Types of Diabetes Based on Management Genetics and Diabetes Type Diabetes (Autoimmune Diabetes) Pancreatic Islet ss Cell Failure Autoimmune Disease Diabetes Secondary to Viral Infections Insulin Release Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY) Genetic Errors in Insulin Structure Mitochondrial Diabetes Peripheral Insulin Resistance Animal Models for Humans with Type 2 Diabetes Population Surveys Relating Diet to Diabetes Prospective Studies Linking Food Intake to a Reduction in Type 2 Diabetes Dietary Intervention in Diabetes Other Intervention Studies Overall Management of Both Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Other Health Concerns in Carbohydrate Nutrition Fiber Ethanol Carbohydrate Needs References Lipids Classification Structure and Nomenclature Simple Lipids Fatty Acids Triacyglycerols (Fats or Triglycerides) Sources of Lipids Digestion and Absorption Transport Endogenous Lipid Transport Genetic Basis for Lipoproteinemia Nutrient-Gene Interactions in Lipid Transport Function Essential Fatty Acids Eicosanoid Synthesis Fatty Acid Autooxidation Nutrition, Inflammation, and Chronic Disease The Injury Cycle Relationship of Inflammation to Chronic Disease Aging and Free Radicals Marine Oils and Health Concerns Lipids and Membrane Function Membrane Phospholipid Composition Disease Effects on Membrane Lipids Hormonal Effects on Membrane Lipids Age Effects on Membrane Lipids Membrane Function Cancer and Dietary Fat Other Diseases References Fat-Soluble Vitamins Vitamin A Structure and Nomenclature Chemical Properties Biopotency Sources Metabolism of Vitamin A Functions Hypervitaminosis A Vitamin Degradation and Excretion Need Vitamin D Structure and Nomenclature Physical/Chemical Properties Biopotency Methods of Assay International Units (IU) Metabolism Absorption Transport Metabolism Function Regulation of Serum Calcium Levels Vitamin D Deficiency Hypervitaminosis D Need Vitamin E Structure and Nomenclature International Units and Methods of Analysis Chemical and Physical Properties Sources Metabolism Absorption and Transport Intracellular Transport and Storage Catabolism and Excretion Function Hypervitaminosis E Deficiency Need Vitamin K Structure and Nomenclature Biopotency Chemical and Physical Properties Chemical Assays Bioassays Biosynthesis Antagonists, Antivitamins Absorption Metabolism and Function Deficiency Sources Need References Water-Soluble Vitamins Ascorbic Acid Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties Sources Absorption and Metabolism Distribution Function Deficiency Toxicity Need Thiamin Structure Thiamin Antagonists Assays for Thiamin Sources Absorption and Metabolism Biological Function Deficiency Needs Toxicity Riboflavin Structure, Chemical, and Physical Properties Sources Assay Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Needs Niacin, Nicotinic Acid Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties Sources Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Need Pyridoxine Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties Sources Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Need Pantothenic Acid Structure, Chemical, and Physical Properties Sources Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Symptoms Need Biotin Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties Sources Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Need Folic Acid Structure, Chemical, and Physical Properties Sources Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Need Vitamin B12 Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Need Carnitine Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties Sources Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Choline Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties Sources Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Need Inositol Structure, Physical, and Chemical Properties Absorption and Metabolism Function Deficiency Need Other Compounds That May or May Not Be Vitamins Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Ubiquinone Orotic Acid Para Amino Benzoic Acid (PABA) Lipoic Acid Bioflavinoids Pseudovitamins References Macrominerals Sodium Regulation of Serum Sodium Function Potassium Chloride Function Calcium Sources Food Mixtures Bioavailability Apparent Absorption Physiological Status Mechanisms of Absorption Calcium Transport, Blood Calcium Regulation Function Cell Signaling Calcium and Cell Death Muscle Contraction Calcium Deficiency Need Phosphorus Function Magnesium Absorption, Metabolism, Excretion Function Deficiency Need References Trace Minerals Essential Microminerals Trace Mineral Toxicity Antagonisms and Interactions among Trace Minerals Iron Absorption, Excretion, Metabolism Iron-Containing Materials in the Body Iron Needs Iron Deficiency (Anemia) Pharmacological Treatment of Iron Deficiency Toxicology Zinc Absorption, Metabolism, Excretion Function Storage Zinc Interactions Deficiency Status Copper Absorption, Metabolism, Excretion Function Deficiency Abnormal Copper Status Selenium Absorption, Excretion, Metabolism Function Selenium-Mineral Interactions Deficiency Toxicity Iodine (Iodide) Absorption, Metabolism, Excretion Deficiency Need Molybdenum Absorption and Excretion Function Food Sources and Recommended Intake Manganese Absorption and Excretion Function Food Sources, Recommended Intake Toxicity Cobalt Toxicity, Mineral Interactions Other Minerals References Glossary Index

NUTRIENT-GENE INTERACTIONS

Nutrients serve not only as structural components of the body and its metabolic webs but also as regulators of the expression of genes whose products are cell components. In turn, the genetic background of the consumer determines how much of a given nutrient is needed and tolerated. Between minimal need and maximal tolerance is the intake that potentiates good health and promotes optimal nutritional status.

Genomics and proteomics in nutrition

MOUSE MODELS OF HUMAN DISEASES AND GENE TRANSCRIPTION Genetic Modifiers in Rodent Models of Obesity, Y. Wang, P.M. Nishina and J. Naggert Quantitative TrAit Loci in obesity and TYPE II Diabetes in Rodents, J.H. Kim The Human Sweet Tooth and its Relationship to Obesity, A.H. McDaniel and D.R. Reed The Adipose Renin-Angiotensin System: Genetics, Regulation, and Physiologic Function, B.H. Voy, S. Kim, S. Urs, M. Derfus, Y.-R. Heo, R. Joshi, F. Massiera, M. Teboul, G. Aihaud, A. Quignard-Boulange, and N. Moustaid-Moussa Regulation of Fat Synthesis and Adipogenesis, K.-H. Kim, M.J. Griffin, J.A. Villena, and H.S. Sul Transcriptional Regulation of Energy Metabolism in Liver, M.T. Nakamura, GENOMICS: LARGE SCALE ANALYSIS OF GENE EXPRESSION BY MICROARRAY Design and Analysis of Microarray Studies for Obesity Research, M.-Pierre St. Onge, G.P. Page, M. DeLuca, K. Zhang, K. Kim, S.B. Heymsfield, and D. Allsion Solving Clinical Problems in Nutrition Research with Microarrays, S. Smith Genomic Approaches to Understanding Vitamin D Action, J. Fleet Gene Expression Profiling in Adipose Tissue, N. Moustaid-Moussa Phytochemicals and Gene Expression, O. Mezei and N. Shay Gene Expression Profiling of Immune Cells: Application for Understanding Aging of Immune Cells, S.N. Han and S. Meydani Improving the Nutritional Value of Cereal Grains Using a Genomic Approach, L. Shi and T. Zhu PROTEOMICS: LARGE SCALE ANALYSIS OF PROTEIN EXPRESSION AND REGULATION Proteomics and Genomics in Health & Disease, J.A. Carroll and C.E. Mathews 2D-Gel Proteomics Studies on Leukocytes, I.C. Gerling and M.J. Pabst Proteomics: Tools for Nutrition Research in the Post-Genomic Era, A. Grider Proteomic Analysis of the Adipocyte Secretome, Ibarrola Mass Spectrometry Strategies for Proteomic Studies, M. Belghazi and H. Rogniaux Bioinformatics Tools, S.M Lin, K.F. Johnson, and S.W. Kullman Statistical Principles for Analysis of Array Experiments, A.M. Saxton and E.B. Moser Index

Nutrition and Gene Expression

Nutrient Receptors and Gene Expression (J.L. Hargrove and C.D. Berdanier). Lactose Intolerance and Regulation of Small Intestinal Lactase Activity (R.K. Montgomery, H.A. Bnller, E.H.H.M. Rings, J. Dekker, and R.J. Grand). Regulation of Gastrointestinal Lipase Gene Expression by Dietary Lipids (C. Wicker-Planquart and A. Puigserver). Nutritional Control of Gastrointestinal Hormone Gene Expression (P.K. Lund). Calcium Homeostasis, Endoplasmic Reticular Function, and the Regulation of mRNA Translation in Mammalian Cells (M.A. Brostrom and C.O. Brostrom). Tissue-Specific Regulation of Glucokinase (M.A. Magnuson and T.L. Jetton). Dietary and Hormonal Regulation of L-Type Pyruvate Kinase Gene Expression (T. Noguchi and T. Tanaka). Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase: Diet and Hormonal Influences on De Novo Enzyme Synthesis (R.F. Kletzien and C.D. Berdanier). Nutritional and Hormonal Regulation of Genes Encoding Enzymes Involved in Fat Synthesis (H.S. Sul, N. Moustaid, K. Sakamoto, C. Sm as, N. Gekakis, and A. Jerkins). Regulation of Hepatic Gene Expression by Dietary Fats: A Unique Role for Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (S.D. Clarke and D.B. Jump). Dietary Fat, Gene Expression, and Carcinogenesis (H.P. Glauert). Regulation of Acetyl CoA Carboxylase and Gene Expression (J.B. Allred and D.F. Bowers). Apolipoprotein B mRNA Editing (N.O. Davidson). Regulation of the 68 kDa Hepatic Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase (P.S. Brady, R.A. Barke, and L.J. Brady). Long-Term Regulation of Hepatic Glutaminase and the Urea Cycle Enzymes (M. Watford). Effects of Dietary Protein on Gene Expression (D.K.-C. Chan and J.L. Hargrove). Vitamin D-Dependent Calcium Binding Protein, Calbindin-D: Regulation of Gene Expression (R.K. Gill and S. Christakos). Vitamin D Regulation of Osteoblast Growth and Differentiation (J.B. Lian and G.S. Stein). Retinoic Acid Regulation of Gene Expression in Adipocytes (D.B. Jump, G.J. Lepar, and O.A. MacDougald). The Role of Vitamin K in Clotting Factor Biosy nthesis (J.W. Suttie). Role of Ascorbate in Regulating the Collagen Pathway (R.I. Schwarz). Dietary Regulation of Metallothionein Expression (N.F. Shay and R.J. Cousins). Iron-Dependant Regulation of Ferritin Synthesis (H.N. Munro, Z. Kikinis, and R.S. Eisenstein). Vitamin B6 Modulation of Steroid Induced Gene Expression (D.B. Tully, V.E. Allgood, and J.A. Cidlowski). Index.

Is Inositol An Essential Nutrient

Inositol is an essential part of every cell as a key ingredient for one of the membrane lipids, phosphatidylinositol. While many scientists argue that it is not an essential nutrient because the body can synthesize it, evidence exists that some individuals may be unable to meet their metabolic needs through endogenous synthesis.

Weight Loss—Weight Regain A Vicious Cycle

This article examines the possible contributions to and implications of the weight loss-weight regain cycle, which poses potential physiological and psychological problems for many obese adults.

Nutrient-gene interactions in health and disease

Dietary and Hormonal Regulation of the Mammalian Fatty Acid Synthase Gene, Kristin Morris, Yanxin Wang, Suyeon Kim, and Naima Moustaid-Moussa Nutrition and Adipocyte Gene Expression, Ron F. Morrison and Stephen R. Farmer Regulation of the Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase Genes by Dietary Fat: Role of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids, James M. Ntambi and Young-Cheul Kim Fatty Acids, White Adipose Tissue Development and Adipocyte Differentiation, Gerard Ailhaud Acyl-CoA Synthetase 1: Regulation and Role in Metabolism, Pamela J. Smith Nutritional Regulation of Fatty Acid Transport Protein Expression, Judith Storch and Fiona M. Herr Alcohol and Gene Expression in the Central Nervous System, Matthew T. Reilly, Christoph Fehr, and Kari J. Buck Nutrient Control of Insulin-Stimulated Glucose Transport in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes, Joseph P. Hwang, Greg Marshall, Daniel Fallon, and Susan C. Frost Prohormone Processing and Disorders of Energy Homeostasis, Jung Han Kim and Jurgen K. Naggert The Agouti Gene in Obesity: Central and Peripheral Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Implications, Michael B. Zemel, Ph.D., Bingzhong Xue, B. Med, and Hang Shi, B. Med Dietary Fats and APC-Driven Intestinal Tumorigenesis, Jay Whelan and Michael F. McEntee Body Weight Regulation, Uncoupling Proteins, and Energy Metabolism, Sheila Collins, Wenhong Cao, Tonya M. Dixon, Kiefer W. Daniel, Hiroki Onuma, and Alexander V. Medvedev Vitamin A and Gene Expression, Peter McCaffery, Fausto Andreola, Valeria Giandomenico, and Luigi M. De Luca Vitamin A and Mitochondrial Gene Expression, Helen B. Everts and Carolyn D. Berdanier Vitamin D and Gene Expression, Anthony W. Norman and Elaine D. Collins Vitamin E and Gene Expression, Simin Nikbin Meydani, Kate J. Claycombe, and Catarina Sacristan Differential Regulation and Function of Glutathione Peroxidases and other Selenoproteins, Xin Gen Lei Ferritin: A Novel Human Ferritin Heavy-Chain MRNA is Predominantly Expressed in the Adult Brain, Madhu S. Dhar

Genetic Errors That Result in Diabetes Mellitus

Individuals with diabetes mellitus have the disease as a result of a genetic defect leading either to failure of insulin production in the pancreas or to failure of the target tissue to respond to insulin. This paper documents the evidence for the genetic basis of various types of diabetes mellitus.

ω-3 Fatty Acids: A Panacea?

Epidemiological information has shown that populations consuming diets high in ω-3 fatty acids have a low incidence of coronary vessel disease. Further studies have identified potential adverse consequences of such a dietary regimen for individuals of different genotypes. This paper discusses the effects of ω-3 fatty acids and several organ systems of the body and stresses the role of genetics in these reactions.

Food and Survival on the Oregon Trail

T he Oregon Trail* was a 2000-mile southeast to northwest route taken from the Missouri River to Oregon. Lewis and Clark’s route to the Pacific Ocean from the Missouri River laid the groundwork for this trail. Initially, the trail was developed by fur traders, trappers, and explorers on horseback or on foot. The trail followed the Platte River and then went overland through Indian territory and what are now the states of Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Idaho, and of course Oregon. The route taken by Lewis and Clark over the Rocky Mountains was too difficult for wagons, so easier routes were found. One such routewas the South Pass. Branches from this route were developed that went to California, Utah, and Montana. Around 1824, American missionaries and early settlers (mostly exYfur trappers and traders) began to clear land and establish homes. At first, there was just a trickle of settlers, but during the 1830s and 1840s, this trickle became a flood. Many were drawn to the northwest territory for its promise of good farmland and good hunting. These emigrants took a wagon or 2, farm animals, and their families over the Oregon Trail. Small bands of settlers, 2 to 3 families, headed west from time to time. Many were just groups of men without families who decided to claim land and homestead the Oregon territory. As more and more people headed west, they gathered into larger groups of people with their wagons (called trains) and traveled under the leadership of a wagonmaster with a guide(s) to lead the way. It was assumed that huntsmen were needed as were weapons for defense and for hunting. Mountain men such as Robert Stuart, William Henry Ashley, Jedediah Smith, Jim Bridger, Thomas Fitzpatrick, and Thomas Farnham knew the routes to the Oregon territory. They often hired out as guides for the wagon trains traveling to the Northwest. The fertile Willamette valleywas a favored destination. Farnhamauthored a guide to travelers detailing the supplies needed for the overland journey. This was amended over time by other authors to provide a reasonably good reference for those wishing to migrate over the Oregon Trail. Some travelers did not intend to travel thewholeway toOregon but dropped out of the train when they found places to settle, build homes, and establish farms and businesses. These early settlers were the peoplewho established small trading centers that sprung up along the Platte River. The Native Americans tried to discourage these settlers and attacked them whenever they could. The flood of emigrants, however, was too great, and although many emigrants were killed by Native Americans, enough emigrants survived and eventually settled in the Northwest Territory. Later this territory was divided into 2 states: Oregon and Washington. Travelers to the Northwest gathered from many parts of the eastern United States for the journey west. St Joseph, Missouri, and Independence, Missouri, were well-used starting points. Travelers would buy food and other supplies at trading posts at these frontier outposts rather than haul their supplies overland to their starting points. Settlement in the Northwest was encouraged by the availability of land that could be homesteaded. The Federal government wanted to populate the northwest territory to strengthen the claim for the northern border of the United States at 54’40’’. TheWar of 1812, the Treaty of Ghent, and the Oregon treaty fixed the border between Canada and the United States higher at the 49th parallel. Despite these treaties, however, the Hudson Bay Company, a British Company, tried to control both settlement and use of the territory. The Hudson Bay Company wanted the territory for itswealth in furs and as a trading center for that part of the Pacific Coast. The trapping of beaverwas the basis for their fur trade, but this died out as men’s fashions changed. Beaver fur hats went out of fashion, and the supply of beaver diminished. Fur trappers had to find other ways of living off the land. Some of them settled as described above, whereas others served as guides and hunters for the wagon trains. In 1836, the first large wagon train of settlers was organized. More than 100 men, women, and children and their covered wagons pulled by oxen, mules, or draft horses left Independence, Missouri, with the destination being the Willamette valley in Oregon. This was a tough trip and took