Casey D. Calhoun

Parental influence on children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: II. Results of a pilot intervention training parents as friendship coaches for children.

We report findings from a pilot intervention that trained parents to be “friendship coaches” for their children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Parents of 62 children with ADHD (ages 6–10; 68% male) were randomly assigned to receive the parental friendship coaching (PFC) intervention, or to be in a no-treatment control group. Families of 62 children without ADHD were included as normative comparisons. PFC was administered in eight, 90-minute sessions to parents; there was no child treatment component. Parents were taught to arrange a social context in which their children were optimally likely to develop good peer relationships. Receipt of PFC predicted improvements in children’s social skills and friendship quality on playdates as reported by parents, and peer acceptance and rejection as reported by teachers unaware of treatment status. PFC also predicted increases in observed parental facilitation and corrective feedback, and reductions in criticism during the child’s peer interaction, which mediated the improvements in children’s peer relationships. However, no effects for PFC were found on the number of playdates hosted or on teacher report of child social skills. Findings lend initial support to a treatment model that targets parental behaviors to address children’s peer problems.

Positive Illusory Bias and Response to Behavioral Treatment Among Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

The current study investigates the accuracy of self-perceptions of competence among 43 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ages 6.9–11.9; 37 boys) attending an 8-week empirically supported behavioral summer treatment program. Having inflated self-perceptions about ones competence at the beginning of the summer predicted poorer response to the intervention administered in the program as assessed by changes in observed conduct problems, peer-nominated social preference, and friendship. However, inflated self-perceptions at the start of the summer predicted reductions in self-reported depressive symptoms during the treatment period. Despite participating in an intensive intervention, there was high stability of childrens biased self-perceptions regarding their performance.

Understanding Parent–Child Social Informant Discrepancy in Youth with High Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders

We investigated discrepancies between parent- and self-reported social functioning among youth with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Three distinct samples showed discrepancies indicating that parents viewed their children as performing one standard deviation below a standardization mean, while youth viewed themselves as comparably-skilled relative to peers. Discrepancies predicted lower parental self-efficacy, and lower youth-reported hostile attributions to peers, marginally-lower depression, and decreased post-treatment social anxiety. Discrepancies predicted outcomes better than parent- or youth-report alone. Informant discrepancies may provide valuable additional information regarding child psychopathology, parental perceptions of parenting stress, and youth treatment response. Findings support a model where abnormal self-perceptions in ASD stem from inflated imputation of subjective experiences to others, and provide direction for improving interventions for youth and parents.

Influence of Anxiety on the Social Functioning of Children With and Without ADHD

Objective: This investigation examined the contribution of anxiety to the social functioning of children with and without ADHD. Method: Participants were 62 children with ADHD (ages 6-10 years and 68% boys) and 62 age- and sex-matched comparison children. Children’s social functioning was measured through parent and teacher reports, observations of social behaviors during a lab-based playgroup with previously unacquainted peers, and peer nominations during that lab-based playgroup. Results: Anxiety symptoms incrementally predicted adult-informant reports of poorer social functioning after controlling for demographic covariates, ADHD status, and oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD) status. However, anxiety was not associated with peer nominations received at the playgroup. There were some indications that anxiety may have greater influence on the functioning of comparison children relative to children with ADHD or ODD. Conclusion: Anxiety may contribute to the peer problems of children both with and without ADHD.

Intrinsic Religiosity Buffers the Longitudinal Effects of Peer Victimization on Adolescent Depressive Symptoms

Peer victimization is a common and potentially detrimental experience for many adolescents. However, not all youth who are exposed to peer victimization experience maladaptive outcomes, such as depression. Thus, greater attention to potential moderators of peer victimization is particularly important. The current study examined the potential moderating effect of intrinsic religiosity and religious attendance on the longitudinal association between physical and relational victimization and depressive symptoms. A diverse sample of adolescents (N = 313; Mage = 17.13 years; 54% female; 49% Caucasian, 24% African American, 19% Latino, 8% mixed race/other; 80% Christian religious affiliation) were recruited from a rural, low-income setting. Adolescents completed self-report measures of religious attendance and intrinsic religiosity, and two forms of victimization (i.e., physical and relational) were assessed using sociometric procedures in 11th grade. Depressive symptoms were measured in both 11th and 12th grade. Results suggest that relational victimization is associated prospectively with depressive symptoms only under conditions of adolescents’ low intrinsic religiosity. Findings may contribute to efforts aimed at prevention and intervention among adolescents at risk for peer victimization and depression.

The Moderating Role of Verbal Aggression on the Relationship Between Parental Feedback and Peer Status Among Children with ADHD

We examined associations between children’s sociometric status and (a) observed parental feedback as well as (b) child aggression. Participants were 94 children ages 6–10 (64 male; 44 with ADHD) and their parents. Children’s peer status, parental feedback to their children, and child aggression were all assessed during lab-based playgroups of four children and their parents. Parent criticism in front of the child’s peers was associated with the child receiving more negative (“disliked”) and fewer positive (“liked”) nominations, but only for children who displayed aggression; this interaction applied almost exclusively to children with ADHD. Parent praise in front of peers was associated with fewer negative nominations when children displayed low levels of aggression, but more at higher levels. Additional analyses revealed that relationships did not exist in the full sample between privately-given parental feedback and children’s peer status. Processes by which peers use overheard adult feedback to inform their assessments of children are discussed.

Beyond Situational Ambiguity in Peer Conflict: Unique and Combined Effects of Cues from an Antagonist and a Best Friend.

In accord with increasing recognition of the situation specificity of childhood social behaviors, individual and contextual differences in childrens responses to potential peer conflict were examined (hostile attribution, behavioral strategies, and affective reactions; N = 367, 9-12 years, 197 girls). Situational cues from 2 sources, the antagonist and a witnessing best friend, were designed to suggest the antagonists intentions. Multilevel modeling indicated that childrens responses generally varied more according to cues from the antagonist than friend, but the latter also affected responses, especially when conflicting with other situational information. Cognitive and affective responses were also influenced by gender, social goals, friendship quality, and self-efficacy for peer interaction. Findings provide theoretical insight on the context of peer conflict.

Family Conflict and Childhood Anxiety

In considering childhood anxiety disorders, it is important to look at the child in context since family environment and conflict influence the child’s anxiety as well as treatment outcomes. The present chapter discusses the effects of interparental conflict, parent–child conflict, and sibling relationships on anxiety. A case study at the end of the chapter illustrates the implications of family conflict on a child’s anxiety and treatment.

Before You Apply to Graduate Programs in Psychology: Knowing When You’re Ready and Gaining Postbaccalaureate Experiences

Do you want to go to graduate school to study psychology? If so, when? These extremely important decisions can be very difficult to consider for undergraduate students who are interested in psychology as a potential focus for their career. Unfortunately, little information is available to guide students through this difficult decision, and even less seems to be available to help students navigate the time between the receipt of their undergraduate degree and the time they decide to apply (i.e., “the postbaccalaureate years”). This chapter focuses on the process of assessing one’s personal interests while maximizing postbaccalaureate learning experiences. First, it is important to think about whether to take “time off” from school before applying. Next, how does one get a “postbacc” research job? Last, how can one use these years most effectively to help inform an application decision? Note: this chapter is likely biased towards research-oriented options; however, most of the information may be relevant to students with more applied interests as well.