Caterina Pesce

Enhancing cognitive functioning in the elderly: multicomponent vs resistance training

Purpose The primary purpose of this study was to compare the effects of two different exercise training programs on executive cognitive functions and functional mobility in older adults. A secondary purpose was to explore the potential mediators of training effects on executive function and functional mobility with particular reference to physical fitness gains. Methods A sample of 42 healthy community dwelling adults aged 65 to 75 years participated twice weekly for 3 months in either: (1) multicomponent training, prioritizing neuromuscular coordination, balance, agility, and cognitive executive control; or (2) progressive resistance training for strength conditioning. Participants were tested at baseline (T1), following a 4-week control period (T2), and finally at postintervention (T3) for executive function (inhibition and cognitive flexibility) and functional mobility (maximal walking speed with and without additional task requirements). Cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness were also assessed as potential mediators. Results Indices of inhibition, the functions involved in the deliberate withholding of prepotent or automatic responses, and measures of functional mobility improved after the intervention, independent of training type. Mediation analysis suggested that different mechanisms underlie the effects of multicomponent and progressive resistance training. While multicomponent training seemed to directly affect inhibitory capacity, resistance training seemed to affect it indirectly through gains in muscular strength. Physical fitness and executive function variables did not mediate functional mobility changes. Conclusion These results confirm that physical training benefits executive function and suggest that different training types might lead to such benefits through different pathways. Both types of training also promoted functional mobility in older adulthood; however, neither inhibitory capacity, nor muscular strength gains seemed to explain functional mobility outcomes.

Focusing of visual attention at rest and during physical exercise in soccer players

Abstract In this study, we investigated the focus of visual attention in expert soccer players together with the effects of acute bouts of physical exercise on performance. In two discriminative reaction time experiments, which were performed both at rest and under submaximal physical workload, visual attention was cued by means of spatial cues of different size followed by compound stimuli with local and global target features. Soccer players were slower than non-athletes in reacting to local compared with global targets, but were faster in switching from local to global attending. Thus, soccer players appear to be less skilled in local attending, but better able than non-athletes to rapidly “zoom out” the focus of attention. Non-athletes generally showed faster performance under physical load, as expected according to the hypothesis of exercise-induced increases in arousal and/or activation and in resource allocation. In contrast, soccer players showed a more differentiated pattern of exercise-induced facilitation that selectively affects specific components of the attentional performance and is interpreted by referring to the role played by individual expertise and cognitive effort.

Cognitively challenging physical activity benefits executive function in overweight children

Abstract This study tested the association between aerobic fitness and executive function and the impact of enhanced, cognitively challenging physical activity on executive function in overweight and lean children. Seventy children aged 9–10 years were assigned to either a 6-month enhanced physical education programme including cognitively demanding (open skill) activities or curricular physical education only. Pre- and post-intervention tests assessed aerobic capacity (Leger test) and two components of executive function: inhibition and working memory updating (random number generation task). Indices of inhibition and memory updating were compared in higher- and lower-fit children and intervention effects were evaluated as a function of physical activity programme (enhanced vs. curricular) and weight status (lean vs. overweight). Results showed better inhibition in higher- than lower-fit children, extending the existing evidence of the association between aerobic fitness and executive function to new aspects of children’s inhibitory ability. Overweight children had more pronounced pre- to post-intervention improvements in inhibition than lean children only if involved in enhanced physical education. Such intervention effects were not mediated by aerobic fitness gains. Therefore, the cognitive and social interaction challenges inherent in open skill tasks, even though embedded in a low-dose physical activity programme, may represent an effective means to promote cognitive efficiency, especially in overweight children.

Focusing of visual attention under submaximal physical load

Abstract This study investigated the focusing of visual attention, with and without, a constant submaximal workload (60% VO2max), on a cycloergometer in two experiments. Two main dimensions of attentional focusing were considered: the space/object‐based dimension and the exogenous/endogenous dimension. These dimensions were investigated by means of the following attention task: A cue of varying size was presented centrally and followed, after a variable interval, by a compound letter with global and local features. Participants were required to react to a predefined target letter, which could be either the global form or one of the local elements of the compound letter. Results confirm the effect of reaction time (RT) reduction under submaximal workloads. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the physical load reduces the RT cost, which has to be paid when a misleading cue causes a disadvantageous focusing of attention. This effect of physical load is presumably mediated by increased allocation of attentional resources and enhanced speed of attentional refocusing. This interpretation is discussed both in terms of the type of attentional operations involved (zooming in vs. zooming out) and the type of control exerted on the attentional focusing (exogenous vs. endogenous).

Acute and Chronic Exercise Effects on Attentional Control in Older Road Cyclists

Background: Research on visual attention control of older road cyclists, who represent a subgroup of traffic participants, is still scarce and studies on their attentional performance while cycling are completely lacking. Objective: The present study assessed whether attention control performance of older individuals with a history of participation in road cycling is affected by concomitant cycling exercise. Acute exercise effects were also analyzed in co-aged aerobically trained and sedentary noncyclists to assess whether the acute exercise-cognition relationship is moderated by individual differences induced by chronic sport practice versus sedentary lifestyle. Methods: Sixteen 60- to 80-year-old cyclists and 32 age-matched noncyclists (16 endurance athletes and 16 sedentary individuals) performed a go/no-go reaction time task in which visual attention was cued by means of spatial cues of different sizes followed by compound stimuli with local and global target features. Results: Older cyclists showed commonalities with and differences from other aerobically trained athletes. Both trained groups, when compared to sedentary individuals, showed shorter reaction time (RT) during physical exercise and a smaller RT disadvantage for unexpected local targets at short stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA). This expectancy-driven RT effect was stable across SOAs only in the case of cyclists. Conclusions: Results suggest that chronic long-term aerobic training may lead to favorable conditions for the occurrence of a facilitation effect during acute exercise and for a more efficient use of available resources on attentional tasks involving executive control. These results highlight the importance of considering the effects of aerobic exercise for supporting safe on-road behavior.

Inter-limb coordination, strength, jump, and sprint performances following a youth men's basketball game.

Cortis, C, Tessitore, A, Lupo, C, Pesce, C, Fossile, E, Figura, F, and Capranica, L. Inter-limb coordination and strength, jump, and sprint performances following a youth mens basketball game. J Strength Cond Res 25(1): 135-142, 2011-This study aimed to verify whether basketball players are able to maintain strength (handgrip), jump (countermovement jump [CMJ]), sprint (10 m and 10 m bouncing the ball [10mBB]), and interlimb coordination (i.e., synchronized hand and foot flexions and extensions at 80, 120, and 180 bpm) performances at the end of their game. Ten young (age 15.7 ± 0.2 years) male basketball players volunteered for this study. During the friendly game, heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and rate of muscle pain (RMP) were assessed to evaluate the exercise intensity. Overall, players spent 80% of the time playing at intensities higher than 85% HRmax. Main effects (p < 0.05) for game periods emerged for HR and the number of players involved in a single action, with lower occurrence of maximal efforts and higher involvement of teammates after the first 2 periods. At the end of the game, players reported high (p < 0.05) RPE (15.7 ± 2.4) and RMP (5.2 ± 2.3) values; decreased (p < 0.05) sprint capabilities (10 m: pre = 1.79 ± 0.09 seconds, post = 1.84 ± 0.08 seconds; 10mBB: pre = 1.81 ± 0.11 seconds, post = 1.96 ± 0.08 seconds); increased (p < 0.05) interlimb coordination at 180 bpm (pre = 33.3 ± 20.2 seconds, post = 43.9 ± 19.8 seconds); and maintained jump (pre = 35.2 ± 5.2 cm, post = 35.7 ± 5.2 cm), handgrip (pre = 437 ± 73 N, post = 427 ± 55 N), and coordinative performances at lower frequencies of executions (80 bpm: pre = 59.7 ± 1.3 seconds, post = 60.0 ± 0.0 seconds; 120 bpm: pre = 54.7 ± 12.3 seconds, post = 57.3 ± 6.7 seconds). These findings indicate that the heavy load of the game exerts beneficial effects on the efficiency of executive and attentive control functions involved in complex motor behaviors. Coaches should structure training sessions that couple intense physical exercises with complex coordination tasks to improve the attentional capabilities of the players.

Interlimb coordination, strength, and power in soccer players across the lifespan.

Cortis, C, Tessitore, A, Perroni, F, Lupo, C, Pesce, C, Ammendolia, A, and Capranica, L. Interlimb coordination, strength, and power in soccer players across the lifespan. J Strength Cond Res 23(9): 2458-2466, 2009-This study aimed at verifying whether chronic participation in soccer training has a beneficial effect (p < 0.05) on the improvement and the maintenance of interlimb coordination performance across the lifespan and whether coordination is moderated by strength and power performances. Forty young (12 ± 1 yr), 42 adult (26 ±5 yr), and 32 older (59 ± 11 yr) male soccer players and sedentary individuals were administered in-phase (IP) and antiphase (AP) synchronized (80, 120, and 180 bpm) hand and foot flexions and extensions, handgrip and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests. Regardless of age, soccer players always showed better performances (handgrip: 383 ± 140 N; CMJ: 28.3 ± 8.7 cm; IP: 55.2 ± 12.9 s; and AP: 31.8 ± 25.0 s) than sedentary individuals (handgrip: 313 ± 124 N; CMJ: 21.0 ± 9.4 cm; IP: 46.7 ± 20.2 s, and AP: 21.1 ± 23.9 s). With respect to IP and AP performances, a hierarchical model (p < 0.0001) emerged for CMJ, explaining 30% and 26% of the variance for IP and AP, respectively. In contrast, handgrip did not provide increments in the explained variance. Results indicate that chronic soccer training is beneficial to develop strength, CMJ, and interlimb synchronization capabilities in children, to reach higher levels of proficiency in adults, and to maintain performance in older individuals. The predicted role of CMJ on interlimb coordination indicates that a fine neuromuscular activation timing is central for both jump and coordinative performances. In practice, to induce higher attentional control and executive function in open skill sport athletes and to better prepare players to cope with the demands of their match, coaches should modulate complex motor behaviors with increasing velocity of execution and are strongly recommended to make use of technical and tactical drills that focus on the players agility under time pressure to induce higher attentional control and executive function.

Effects of Aging on Visual Attentional Focusing

Background: Visual attentional performance is affected by aging, but there are methodological barriers to the understanding of this phenomenon that are due, above all, to the concomitant deterioration of sensory or central factors such as visual acuity and information processing speed. Objective: The aim of the present study was to verify the effects of aging on visual attentional focusing by analyzing the space- and object-based components as well as the exogenous and endogenous dimensions of the attentional allocation. Methods: Focusing of visual attention was investigated in 14 youngsters, 14 younger adults and 14 older adults (age ranges 12–15, 24–38 and 60–75 years, respectively). In two discrimination reaction time (RT) experiments, attention was cued by means of spatial cues of different size followed by compound stimuli at a shorter (150 ms) and a longer (500 ms) stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA). The compound stimuli contained a predefined target letter at a local or global level. Results: Older adults showed generally slower RTs and higher rates of delayed responses than younger individuals and reduced discrimination speed of local objects at 150-ms SOA, particularly when attention was invalidly cued to focus at a larger spatial scale. Conclusions: This pattern of results suggests that aging causes a dysfunction of the space-based and the object-based components of the attentional ‘zooming in’. Such information may be of practical relevance for developing attentional training programs for older adults.

More than one road leads to Rome: A narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth

A growing body of research indicates that physical activity (PA) positively impacts cognitive function in youth. However, not all forms of PA benefit cognition equally. The purpose of this review was to determine the effect of different types of chronic PA interventions on cognition in children and adolescents. A systematic search of electronic databases and examination of the reference lists of relevant studies resulted in the identification of 28 studies. Seven categories of PA were identified, based on all possible combinations of three types of PA (aerobic, motor skill, cognitively engaging), and four comparison groups (no treatment, academic, traditional physical education (PE), aerobic). Effect sizes were calculated based on means and SDs at the post-test using Hedge’s g formula, which includes a correction for small sample bias. Each study was only entered once in each intervention-comparator category. Full data were provided from 21 studies (28 effect sizes; n = 2042 intervention; n = 2002 comparison group). Overall, chronic PA interventions had a significant small-to-moderate effect on cognition (0.46). Moderate significant positive effects were identified when PA interventions were compared to no treatment (0.86) or academic content (0.57). A non-significant effect was noted when PA interventions were compared to traditional PE (0.09) or aerobic group (0.80). However, high heterogeneity in pooled effect sizes suggests that important differences in the qualitative characteristics of the PA intervention and comparison interventions may exist. Effect sizes based on comparisons between different types of PA interventions and comparison groups are discussed in order to identify possible directions for future investigations. We conclude that chronic PA interventions have a positive impact on cognitive function in youth, but more systematic research is needed in this area.

Deliberate play and preparation jointly benefit motor and cognitive development : mediated and moderated effects

In light of the interrelation between motor and cognitive development and the predictive value of the former for the latter, the secular decline observed in motor coordination ability as early as preschool urges identification of interventions that may jointly impact motor and cognitive efficiency. The aim of this study was twofold. It (1) explored the outcomes of enriched physical education (PE), centered on deliberate play and cognitively challenging variability of practice, on motor coordination and cognitive processing; (2) examined whether motor coordination outcomes mediate intervention effects on children’s cognition, while controlling for moderation by lifestyle factors as outdoor play habits and weight status. Four hundred and sixty children aged 5–10 years participated in a 6-month group randomized intervention in PE, with or without playful coordinative and cognitive enrichment. The weight status and spontaneous outdoor play habits of children (parental report of outdoor play) were evaluated at baseline. Before and after the intervention, motor developmental level (Movement Assessment Battery for Children) was evaluated in all children, who were then assessed either with a test of working memory (Random Number Generation task), or with a test of attention (from the Cognitive Assessment System). Children assigned to the ‘enriched’ intervention showed more pronounced improvements in all motor coordination assessments (manual dexterity, ball skills, static/dynamic balance). The beneficial effect on ball skills was amplified by the level of spontaneous outdoor play and weight status. Among indices of executive function and attention, only that of inhibition showed a differential effect of intervention type. Moderated mediation showed that the better outcome of the enriched PE on ball skills mediated the better inhibition outcome, but only when the enrichment intervention was paralleled by a medium-to-high level of outdoor play. Results suggest that specifically tailored physical activity (PA) games provide a unique form of enrichment that impacts children’s cognitive development through motor coordination improvement, particularly object control skills, which are linked to children’s PA habits later in life. Outdoor play appears to offer the natural ground for the stimulation by designed PA games to take root in children’s mind.