Catherine J. Pallen

F3/Contactin Acts as a Functional Ligand for Notch during Oligodendrocyte Maturation

Axon-derived molecules are temporally and spatially required as positive or negative signals to coordinate oligodendrocyte differentiation. Increasing evidence suggests that, in addition to the inhibitory Jagged1/Notch1 signaling cascade, other pathways act via Notch to mediate oligodendrocyte differentiation. The GPI-linked neural cell recognition molecule F3/contactin is clustered during development at the paranodal region, a vital site for axoglial interaction. Here, we show that F3/contactin acts as a functional ligand of Notch. This trans-extracellular interaction triggers gamma-secretase-dependent nuclear translocation of the Notch intracellular domain. F3/Notch signaling promotes oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation and upregulates the myelin-related protein MAG in OLN-93 cells. This can be blocked by dominant negative Notch1, Notch2, and two Deltex1 mutants lacking the RING-H2 finger motif, but not by dominant-negative RBP-J or Hes1 antisense oligonucleotides. Expression of constitutively active Notch1 or Notch2 does not upregulate MAG. Thus, F3/contactin specifically initiates a Notch/Deltex1 signaling pathway that promotes oligodendrocyte maturation and myelination.

Targeted disruption of the tyrosine phosphatase PTPα leads to constitutive downregulation of the kinases Src and Fyn

A role for the receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase alpha (PTPalpha) in regulating the kinase activity of Src family members has been proposed because ectopic expression of PTPalpha enhances the dephosphorylation and activation of Src and Fyn [1] [2] [3]. We have generated mice lacking catalytically active PTPalpha to address the question of whether PTPalpha is a physiological activator of Src and Fyn, and to investigate its other potential functions in the context of the whole animal. Mice homozygous for the targeted PTPalpha allele (PTPalpha-/-) and lacking detectable PTPalpha protein exhibited no gross phenotypic defects. The kinase activities of Src and Fyn were significantly reduced in PTPalpha-/- mouse brain and primary embryonic fibroblasts, and this correlated with enhanced phosphorylation of the carboxy-terminal regulatory Tyr527 of Src in PTPalpha-/- mice. Thus, PTPalpha is a physiological positive regulator of the tyrosine kinases Src and Fyn. Increased tyrosine phosphorylation of several unidentified proteins was also apparent in PTPalpha-/- mouse brain lysates. These may be PTPalpha substrates or downstream signaling proteins. Taken together, the results indicate that PTPalpha has a dual function as a positive and negative regulator of tyrosine phosphorylation events, increasing phosphotyrosyl proteins through activation of Src and Fyn, and directly or indirectly removing tyrosine phosphate from other unidentified proteins.

Akt phosphorylates the Y-box binding protein 1 at Ser102 located in the cold shock domain and affects the anchorage-independent growth of breast cancer cells

Akt/PKB is a serine/threonine kinase that promotes tumor cell growth by phosphorylating transcription factors and cell cycle proteins. There is particular interest in finding tumor-specific substrates for Akt to understand how this protein functions in cancer and to provide new avenues for therapeutic targeting. Our laboratory sought to identify novel Akt substrates that are expressed in breast cancer. In this study, we determined that activated Akt is positively correlated with the protein expression of the transcription/translation factor Y-box binding protein-1 (YB-1) in primary breast cancer by screening tumor tissue microarrays. We therefore questioned whether Akt and YB-1 might be functionally linked. Herein, we illustrate that activated Akt binds to and phosphorylates the YB-1 cold shock domain at Ser102. We then addressed the functional significance of disrupting Ser102 by mutating it to Ala102. Following the stable expression of Flag:YB-1 and Flag:YB-1 (Ala102) in MCF-7 cells, we observed that disruption of the Akt phosphorylation site on YB-1 suppressed tumor cell growth in soft agar and in monolayer. This correlated with an inhibition of nuclear translocation by the YB-1(Ala102) mutant. In conclusion, YB-1 is a new Akt substrate and disruption of this specific site inhibits tumor cell growth.

PTPα regulates integrin-stimulated FAK autophosphorylation and cytoskeletal rearrangement in cell spreading and migration

We investigated the molecular and cellular actions of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) α in integrin signaling using immortalized fibroblasts derived from wild-type and PTPα-deficient mouse embryos. Defects in PTPα−/− migration in a wound healing assay were associated with altered cell shape and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) phosphorylation. The reduced haptotaxis to fibronectin (FN) of PTPα−/− cells was increased by expression of active (but not inactive) PTPα. Integrin-mediated formation of src–FAK and fyn–FAK complexes was reduced or abolished in PTPα−/− cells on FN, concomitant with markedly reduced phosphorylation of FAK at Tyr397. Reintroduction of active (but not inactive) PTPα restored FAK Tyr-397 phosphorylation. FN-induced cytoskeletal rearrangement was retarded in PTPα−/− cells, with delayed filamentous actin stress fiber assembly and focal adhesion formation. This mimicked the effects of treating wild-type fibroblasts with the src family protein tyrosine kinase (Src-PTK) inhibitor PP2. These results, together with the reduced src/fyn tyrosine kinase activity in PTPα−/− fibroblasts (Ponniah et al., 1999; Su et al., 1999), suggest that PTPα functions in integrin signaling and cell migration as an Src-PTK activator. Our paper establishes that PTPα is required for early integrin-proximal events, acting upstream of FAK to affect the timely and efficient phosphorylation of FAK Tyr-397.

PRL PTPs: mediators and markers of cancer progression

Aberrant protein tyrosine phosphorylation resulting from the altered activity of protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) is increasingly being implicated in the genesis and progression of human cancer. Accumulating evidence indicates that the dysregulated expression of members of the phosphatase of regenerating liver (PRL) subgroup of PTPs is linked to these processes. Enhanced expression of the PRLs, notably PRL-1 and PRL-3, promotes the acquisition of cellular properties that confer tumorigenic and metastatic abilities. Up-regulation of PRL-3 is associated with the progression and eventual metastasis of several types of human cancer. Indeed, PRL-3 shows promise as a biomarker and prognostic indicator in colorectal, breast, and gastric cancers. However, the substrates and molecular mechanisms of action of the PRLs have remained elusive. Recent findings indicate that PRLs may function in regulating cell adhesion structures to effect epithelial-mesenchymal transition. The identification of PRL substrates is key to understanding their roles in cancer progression and exploiting their potential as exciting new therapeutic targets for cancer treatment.

Physical and functional interactions between receptor-like protein-tyrosine phosphatase alpha and p59fyn.

We have examined the in vivo activity of receptor-like protein-tyrosine phosphatase α (PTPα) toward p59 fyn , a widely expressed Src family kinase. In a coexpression system, PTPα effected a dose-dependent tyrosine dephosphorylation and activation of p59 fyn , where maximal dephosphorylation correlated with a 5-fold increase in kinase activity. PTPα expression resulted in increased accessibility of the p59 fyn SH2 domain, consistent with a PTPα-mediated dephosphorylation of the regulatory C-terminal tyrosine residue of p59 fyn . No p59 fyn dephosphorylation was observed with an enzymatically inactive mutant form of PTPα or with another receptor-like PTP, CD45. Many enzyme-linked receptors are complexed with their substrates, and we examined whether PTPα and p59 fyn underwent association. Reciprocal immunoprecipitations and assays detected p59 fyn and an appropriate kinase activity in PTPα immunoprecipitates and PTPα and PTP activity in p59 fyn immunoprecipitates. No association between CD45 and p59 fyn was detected in similar experiments. The PTPα-mediated activation of p59 fyn is not prerequisite for association since wild-type and inactive mutant PTPα bound equally well to p59 fyn . Endogenous PTPα and p59 fyn were also found in association in mouse brain. Together, these results demonstrate a physical and functional interaction of PTPα and p59 fyn that may be of importance in PTPα-initiated signaling events.

Distinct FAK-Src activation events promote α5β1 and α4β1 integrin-stimulated neuroblastoma cell motility

Signals from fibronectin-binding integrins promote neural crest cell motility during development in part through protein-tyrosine kinase (PTK) activation. Neuroblastoma (NB) is a neural crest malignancy with high metastatic potential. We find that α4 and α5 integrins are present in late-stage NB tumors and cell lines derived thereof. To determine the signaling connections promoting either α4β1- or α5β1-initiated NB cell motility, pharmacological, dominant negative and short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) inhibitory approaches were undertaken. shRNA knockdown revealed that α5β1-stimulated NB motility is dependent upon focal adhesion kinase (FAK) PTK, Src PTK and p130Cas adapter protein expression. Cell reconstitution showed that FAK catalytic activity is required for α5β1-stimulated Src activation in part through direct FAK phosphorylation of Src at Tyr-418. Alternatively, α4β1-stimulated NB cell motility is dependent upon Src and p130Cas but FAK is not essential. Catalytically inactive receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase-α overexpression inhibited α4β1-stimulated NB motility and Src activation consistent with α4-regulated Src activity occurring through Src Tyr-529 dephosphorylation. In α4 shRNA-expressing NB cells, α4β1-stimulated Src activation and NB cell motility were rescued by wild type but not cytoplasmic domain-truncated α4 re-expression. These studies, supported by results using reconstituted fibroblasts, reveal that α4β1-mediated Src activation is mechanistically distinct from FAK-mediated Src activation during α5β1-mediated NB migration and support the evaluation of inhibitors to α4, Src and FAK in the control of NB tumor progression.

Protein tyrosine phosphatase alpha (PTPalpha): a Src family kinase activator and mediator of multiple biological effects.

This review discusses progress made over the past 10+ years in elucidating the properties, regulation, and function of protein tyrosine phosphatase alpha (PTPalpha). It is apparent from studies in knockout mice and diverse cell lines that the major action of PTPalpha is as a positive regulator of src and src family kinases. PTPalpha dephosphorylates and activates src. In this manner it affects transformation and tumourigenesis, inhibition of proliferation and cell cycle arrest, mitotic activation of src, integrin signaling, neuronal differentiation and outgrowth, and ion channel activity. PTPalpha may well modulate additional processes, including insulin signaling, and have other targets besides src family kinases. As an important modulator of several specific cell signaling pathways, PTPalpha has promise as a target for drug discovery. Continued research on the physiological and pathological activities of PTPalpha is necessary to define the therapeutic potential of PTPalpha-directed pharmacologicals.

Integrin-induced Tyrosine Phosphorylation of Protein-tyrosine Phosphatase-α Is Required for Cytoskeletal Reorganization and Cell Migration

Protein-tyrosine phosphatase-α (PTPα) activates Src family kinases (SFKs) to promote the integrin-stimulated early autophosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK). We report here that integrin stimulation induces tyrosine phosphorylation of PTPα. PTPα was dephosphorylated upon fibroblast detachment from the substratum and rephosphorylated when cells were plated on the integrin ligand fibronectin. α PTP phosphorylation occurred at Tyr789 and required SFKs (Src or Fyn/Yes), FAK, and an intact cytoskeleton. It also required active PTPα or constitutively active Src. These observations indicate that PTPα activates SFKs and that the subsequently activated SFK·FAK tyrosine kinase complex in turn phosphorylates PTPα. Reintroduction of wild-type PTPα or unphosphorylatable PTPα(Y789F) (but not inactive PTPα) into PTPα-null fibroblasts restored defective integrin-induced SFK activation, FAK phosphorylation, and paxillin phosphorylation. PTPα(Y789F) and inactive PTPα could not rescue delayed actin stress fiber assembly and focal adhesion formation or defective cell migration. This study distinguishes two roles of PTPα in integrin signaling: an early role as an activator of SFKs and FAK with no requirement for PTPα phosphorylation and a later downstream role in cytoskeleton-associated events for which PTPα phosphorylation at Tyr789 is essential.

A multifunctional calmodulin-stimulated phosphatase

This review summarizes current knowledge concerning structure-function, substrate specificity, localization, and regulatory properties of calcineurin. Calcineurin is composed of two nonidentical subunits, one of which is responsible for catalytic activity and calmodulin binding while the other subunit contains four high-affinity Ca2+-binding sites. The enzyme possesses calmodulin-stimulated and metal ion-dependent phosphatase activity toward several nonprotein and phosphoseryl-, phosphothreonyl- and phosphotyrosyl-containing protein substrates. These recent results suggest that the protein may play a multifunctional role in interactions between the Ca2+/CaM second messenger system and other second messenger systems.