Catherine L. Costigan

Similarities and Differences in Acculturation Among Mothers, Fathers, and Children in Immigrant Chinese Families

Similarities and differences in acculturation in multiple domains were evaluated among mothers, fathers, and children in 88 immigrant Chinese families in Canada. Parents and children differed most in host culture domains (public Canadian behaviors and private Canadian values) and were most similar in ethnic private domains (Chinese identity and values). Differences in the ethnic public domain (Chinese behaviors) were moderate. Unexpectedly, considerable mother-father differences were also evident across domains. The predictors of parent-child differences varied by domain. Differences in public domains were larger in mother-child dyads and in families with longer residence in Canada. Differences in ethnic private domains were larger in father-child dyads and in families characterized by less warmth. Findings are discussed in terms of the domain specificity of cultural transmission and the influence of immigrant parents in host versus ethnic dimensions.

Orthogonal versus linear models of acculturation among immigrant Chinese Canadians: A comparison of mothers, fathers, and children

A multidimensional model of acculturation was examined among 96 immigrant Chinese families living in Canada. All parents were foreign-born, as were 75% of children (average age 12). Each family member completed measures of cultural orientation (behavioural practices), identity, and cultural values. An orthogonal model of acculturation (e.g., host and ethnic culture affiliations are independent rather than linear) was clearly supported for fathers and children. For fathers and foreign-born children, greater involvement in Canadian culture was not associated with a diminishment of ethnic identity or values. For Canadian-born children, this involvement seemed to foster, rather than reduce, the endorsement of ethnic identity and traditional values. For mothers, ethnic and host cultural domains were modestly negatively correlated, providing less support for the orthogonal model. Results are discussed in relation to the conditions that may foster orthogonal versus linear models of acculturation.

Family problem-solving with children who have mental retardation

Problem-solving discussions were observed within families of children with mental retardation and multiple comparison groups (total N = 162 families). As expected, parents were more persistent and directive with their children who had mental retardation, but they also avoided negative exchanges with these children. These patterns did not spillover to interactions with the siblings, though older siblings of young children with mental retardation engaged in frequent negative exchanges with the parents. Irrespective of disability status, child behavior problems were associated with negative parent-child interactions. Also, high levels of family cohesion and independence and low levels of enmeshment and disengagement were associated with fewer negative parent-child exchanges, though these effects were less pronounced for interactions, specifically with children who have mental retardation.

Acculturation and adjustment among immigrant Chinese parents: mediating role of parenting efficacy.

This study examined parenting efficacy beliefs as a mediator of the association between acculturation and adjustment. The sample consisted of 177 immigrant Chinese mothers and fathers with early adolescent children in Canada. Acculturation was assessed bidimensionally as Canadian and Chinese orientations. A latent psychological adjustment variable was composed of symptoms of depression, feelings of self-esteem, and life satisfaction. Results showed that relations between Canadian orientation and psychological adjustment were partially mediated by parenting efficacy. As expected, the more parents were oriented toward Canadian culture, the more efficacious they felt in their parenting, which in turn was associated with better psychological adjustment. In contrast, mediation of relations between Chinese orientation and psychological adjustment was not supported, as Chinese orientation was not associated with parenting efficacy and was positively associated with psychological adjustment for mothers only. Similar results were found when the meditational model was extended to evaluate parenting practices as an outcome (i.e., warmth, reasoning, and monitoring). That is, parenting efficacy mediated the relation between higher Canadian orientation and more positive parenting practices, whereas Chinese orientation was unrelated to parenting practices. Invariance testing suggested that the models were similar for mothers and fathers. Results support the theory that higher orientation to Canadian culture may advance feelings of parenting efficacy because parents have the cultural knowledge and skills to feel confident parenting in a new intercultural context. Further, they support the expectation that parenting efficacy beliefs, in turn, are important determinants of psychological adjustment and effective parenting for immigrant parents.

Ethnic identity, achievement, and psychological adjustment: Examining risk and resilience among youth from immigrant Chinese families in Canada.

Ethnic identity, achievement, and psychological adjustment were examined among 95 youth from immigrant Chinese families in Canada (mean age 12 years). Utilizing cross-sectional data, promotive effects of ethnic identity were observed; higher ethnic identity was associated with above average achievement and self-esteem and below average levels of depressive symptoms. Vulnerability effects of ethnic identity were fewer; lower ethnic identity was associated with above average depressive symptoms and, for males only, below average self-esteem. Findings also suggested that higher ethnic identity might buffer the stress of poor achievement, indicating a possible protective effect of ethnic identity. Although requiring replication, these preliminary findings illustrate the utility of adopting a risk and resilience framework and suggest the value of promoting strong ethnic identities.

Living up to Expectations: The Strengths and Challenges Experienced by Chinese Canadian Students

This article reviews qualitative and quantitative studies related to the academic achievement of youth from immigrant Chinese families. Overall, the literature suggests that Chinese Canadian students demonstrate high levels of achievement and that this academic success is associated with factors such as stronger feelings of ethnic identity, better English language skills in the family, Chinese cultural values, parental emphasis on schooling, and access to social networks that support achievement. Barriers to high achievement are created by stress in the home, experiences of peer discrimination, cultural differences in school-related expectations, and obstacles to parental involvement in schooling. Importantly, despite high average levels of achievement, the reviewed literature also highlights the psychological and social struggles that many Chinese youth experience. High achievement for some Chinese Canadian adolescents comes at a cost of other aspects of their well-being. In particular, intense parental expectations for these youth, as well as the extremely high standard set by the “model minority” stereotype of Chinese youth, contribute to students’ psychological distress and alienation from parents and peers. Furthermore, the almost exclusive attention to high achievement among Chinese youth ignores those Chinese youth who are not high achievers. Implications are discussed for educational policy and practice related to the schooling of Chinese Canadian youth specifically, as well as youth from families with diverse ethnic backgrounds more generally. Ce papier présente des études qualitatives et quantitatives liées aux accomplissements académiques des jeunes de familles immigrantes chinoises. Globalement, il est suggéré dans la littérature que les étudiants canadiens d’origine chinoise démontrent un haut niveau de réussite et que ce succès académique est associé à des facteurs tels qu’un ressentiment d’identité ethnique plus fort, un niveau d’anglais supérieur au sein de la famille, des valeurs culturelles chinoises, un intérêt des parents pour la réussite scolaire et l’accès à un réseau social qui supporte la réussite en milieu scolaire. Des barrières à la réussite sont crées par le stress dans les foyers, les expériences de discrimination, les variations dans les attentes scolaires liées aux différences culturelles et les obstacles à l’implication des parents dans la scolarité. Plus important encore, malgré les hauts niveaux de réussite, la littérature met en évidence les troubles sociaux et psychologiques rencontrés par de nombreux jeunes chinois au cours de leur expérience. Pour certains adolescents chinois, ce haut niveau de réussite se paye aux prix d’autres aspects de leur bien-être. En particulier, de hautes attentes de la part des parents, ainsi que des standards placés extrêmement haut dus au stéréotype du “minorité modèle” des jeunes chinois, contribuent à la détresse psychologique des étudiants et à l’aliénation des parents et des pairs. Par ailleurs, cette attention, presque exclusivement concentrée sur les grandes réussites parmi les jeunes chinois, ignore ceux n’entrant pas dans cette catégorie. Les implications sont discutées pour la politique et la pratique de l’éducation dans le cadre spécifique de la scolarité des jeunes canadiens chinois ainsi que plus généralement pour les jeunes provenant de familles d’ethnies variées.

The Development of Children’s Ethnic Identity in Immigrant Chinese Families in Canada The Role of Parenting Practices and Children’s Perceptions of Parental Family Obligation Expectations

Parents’ role in children’s ethnic identity development was examined among 95 immigrant Chinese families with young adolescents living in Canada. Children reported their feelings of ethnic identity and perceptions of parental family obligation expectations. Parents reported their family obligation expectations; parents and children reported on parenting practices. Mothers’ expectations, but not fathers’, were positively associated with children’s feelings of ethnic identity. This relation was mediated by children’s perceptions of parental expectations, suggesting that children must first perceive their parents’ expectations for these expectations to influence their ethnic identity. More positive parenting practices were related to stronger feelings of ethnic identity. Mothers’ parenting practices moderated the relations between mothers’ expectations and children’s ethnic affirmation and belonging. The results suggest immigrant mothers’ family obligation expectations provide an avenue for positive family identification and ethnic culture learning opportunities that may encourage children’s ethnic identity development.

A person-centred approach to identifying acculturation groups among Chinese Canadians

This study adopted a person‐centred approach to explore acculturation groups among Chinese Canadians and to examine the demographic and adjustment profiles associated with each group. A total of 234 Chinese Canadian university students completed measures assessing different aspects of their Chinese and Canadian cultural orientations. Cluster analyses identified five acculturation groups: Integrated Group, Separated Group, Assimilated Group, Integrated Group without Chinese Practices, and Marginalized Group with Chinese Practices. Three of the five groups resembled Berrys acculturation model, and the other two groups demonstrated unique constellations of cultural orientations. The differences between the current acculturation groups and Berrys acculturation strategies were due to the differentiation between internal and external domains of cultural orientation, the addition of the domain of ethnic group evaluation, which is not typically included in acculturation research, and the use of cluster analysis...

Embracing Complexity in the Study of Acculturation Gaps: Directions for Future Research

Telzer’s [this issue] review of research related to acculturation gaps within families effectively called attention to the complexity of the construct of acculturation gaps. This is a challenging literature to summarize and Telzer has elucidated many key issues involved in the conceptualization and measurement of acculturation gaps. As Telzer’s article highlighted, the current acculturation gap-distress model oversimplifies the process of cultural adaptation within families. Her article provided a valuable framework for expanding notions of how immigrant families negotiate relationships and foster positive developmental outcomes in a multicultural environment. Telzer’s article articulated 4 primary ways in which parents and children may differ with respect to their acculturation. Three of these 4 are presented as falling outside of the original acculturation gap-distress model. Even early descriptions of the acculturation gap-distress hypothesis, however, recognized potential challenges when parents maintain allegiance to their heritage culture more strongly than their children [e.g., Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1993]. Thus, findings that these types of differences (the fourth acculturation gap) are correlated with problematic outcomes could also be considered consistent with the original model. Regardless, Telzer’s discussion of a broader range of acculturation differences than is typically considered is an important contribution. She drew particular attention to the fact that sometimes parents and children differ in unexpected ways: children who are more oriented towards the heritage culture than their parents and parents who are more oriented to the new culture than their children. Indeed, when the correlates of acculturation gaps are evaluated in community samples of immigrant families with an orthogonal assessment of acculturation and an objective assessment of the size and

Inter- and intra-group variability in perceptions of behavior among Asian Americans and European Americans

Between-group and within-group differences in perceptions of behavior were examined among 74 Asian Americans and 111 European Americans. Participants rated videotaped interactions of Asian American mothers and daughters. Asian Americans, and a more homogeneous sample of Chinese Americans, perceived less maternal control and more reciprocity than did European Americans. Intra-cultural variations in perceptions were also evident, as within-group analyses revealed differences in perceptions based on the generational status of Asian Americans and the degree of multicultural experience of European Americans. Overall, findings suggest that perceptions of behavior are shaped as much by within-group differences in familiarity and experience with the target culture as by between-group differences in ethnicity. Implications for theories of child socialization, multicultural counseling, and observational research are discussed.