Catherine Martin

Repacking of the transmembrane domains of P-glycoprotein during the transport ATPase cycle

P‐glycoprotein (P‐gp) is an ABC (ATP‐binding cassette) transporter, which hydrolyses ATP and extrudes cytotoxic drugs from mammalian cells. P‐gp consists of two transmembrane domains (TMDs) that span the membrane multiple times, and two cytoplasmic nucleotide‐binding domains (NBDs). We have determined projection structures of P‐gp trapped at different steps of the transport cycle and correlated these structures with function. In the absence of nucleotide, an ∼10 Å resolution structure was determined by electron cryo‐microscopy of two‐dimensional crystals. The TMDs form a chamber within the membrane that appears to be open to the extracellular milieu, and may also be accessible from the lipid phase at the interfaces between the two TMDs. Nucleotide binding causes a repacking of the TMDs and reduction in drug binding affinity. Thus, ATP binding, not hydrolysis, drives the major conformational change associated with solute translocation. A third distinct conformation of the protein was observed in the post‐hydrolytic transition state prior to release of ADP/Pi. Biochemical data suggest that these rearrangements may involve rotation of transmembrane α‐helices. A mechanism for transport is suggested.

The molecular interaction of the high affinity reversal agent XR9576 with P‐glycoprotein

The kinetics and nature of equilibrium binding were used to characterize the molecular interaction of the anthranilic acid derivative [3H]‐XR9576 with the multidrug resistance P‐glycoprotein (P‐gp). XR9576 displayed specific high‐affinity binding to P‐gp (Bmax=275 pmol mg−1, Kd=5.1 nM). The transport substrates [3H]‐vinblastine and [3H]‐paclitaxel displayed 4 fold and 20 fold lower affinity respectively for P‐gp. The duration of action of XR9576 with P‐gp was increased in comparison to that of vinblastine which displayed a slower rate of association and a faster dissociation rate. The relative affinities of several modulators and transport substrates to interact with P‐gp were determined from displacement drug equilibrium binding assays. Vinblastine and paclitaxel could only fractionally displace [3H]‐XR9576 binding, displaying Ki values significantly different from their measured Kd values. This suggests a non‐competitive interaction between XR9576 and the P‐gp substrates vinblastine and paclitaxel. XR9576 was shown to be a potent modulator of P‐gp mediated [3H]‐vinblastine and [3H]‐paclitaxel transport as it increased the steady‐state accumulation of these cytotoxics in CHrB30 cells to levels observed in non‐P‐gp‐expressing AuxB1 cells (EC50=487±50 nM). This inhibition of drug transport is not mediated through competition for transport since [3H]‐XR9576 accumulation was not influenced by P‐gp expression or function. These results demonstrate that the P‐gp modulator XR9576 exhibits greater selectivity, duration of inhibition and potency of interaction with this transporter than any other reported modulators. Several lines of evidence suggest that XR9576 inhibits P‐gp function by binding at a site which is distinct from the site of interaction of transport substrates. The two sites may be classified as serving modulatory or transport functions.

The multi-drug resistance reversal agent SR33557 and modulation of vinca alkaloid binding to P-glycoprotein by an allosteric interaction.

1 The interaction of the indolizin sulfone SR33557 with the multidrug resistance P‐glycoprotein (P‐gp), was used to explore the nature of drug binding site(s) on this transporter. The steady‐state accumulation of [3H]‐vinblastine in P‐gp expressing CHrB30 cells was increased by SR33557 with greater potency than verapamil. Furthermore, SR33557 potentiated the affinity of verapamil to modulate vinblastine transport when added simultaneously. 2 Verapamil elicited a 1.5 to 2.5 fold stimulation of basal ATPase activity in CHrB30 membranes, whereas SR33557 and vinblastine inhibited activity, but only at relatively high concentrations. However, SR33557 and vinblastine decreased the Vmax but not the Km for verapamil stimulation of ATPase activity. This is indicative of a non‐competitive interaction, most likely at distinct sites. 3 The specific [3H]‐vinblastine binding to P‐gp in CHrB30 cell membranes was displaced by SR33557 with an IC50 of 8.3±4.5 nM. Moreover, SR33557 caused a 3 fold increase in the dissociation rate of vinblastine binding to P‐gp indicating a negative allosteric effect on the vinca alkaloid acceptor site. 4 These results demonstrate that SR33557 interacts with a site on P‐gp which is distinct from, but allosterically linked to the vinca alkaloid site. The apparent broad substrate specificity displayed by P‐gp may be explained by a multiple drug binding site model.

The Human Scavenger Receptor CD36: glycosylation status and its role in trafficking and function.

Human CD36 is a class B scavenger receptor expressed in a variety of cell types such as macrophage and adipocytes. This plasma membrane glycoprotein has a wide range of ligands including oxidized low density lipoprotein and long chain fatty acids which involves the receptor in diseases such as atherosclerosis and insulin resistance. CD36 is heavily modified post-translationally by N-linked glycosylation, and 10 putative glycosylation sites situated in the large extracellular loop of the protein have been identified; however, their utilization and role in the folding and function of the protein have not been characterized. Using mass spectrometry on purified and peptide N-glycosidase F-deglycosylated CD36 and also by comparing the electrophoretic mobility of different glycosylation site mutants, we have determined that 9 of the 10 sites can be modified by glycosylation. Flow cytometric analysis of the different glycosylation mutants expressed in mammalian cells established that glycosylation is necessary for trafficking to the plasma membrane. Minimally glycosylated mutants that supported trafficking were identified and indicated the importance of carboxyl-terminal sites Asn-247, Asn-321, and Asn-417. However, unlike SRBI, no individual site was found to be essential for proper trafficking of CD36. Surprisingly, these minimally glycosylated mutants appear to be predominantly core-glycosylated, indicating that mature glycosylation is not necessary for surface expression in mammalian cells. The data also show that neither the nature nor the pattern of glycosylation is relevant to binding of modified low density lipoprotein.

Detailed characterization of cysteine‐less P‐glycoprotein reveals subtle pharmacological differences in function from wild‐type protein

Subtle alterations in the coupling of drug binding to nucleotide hydrolysis were observed following mutation of all seven endogenous cysteine residues to serines in the human multidrug resistance transporter, P‐glycoprotein. Wild‐type (wt) and the mutant (cys‐less) forms of P‐gp were expressed in Trichoplusia ni (High Five) cells and purified by metal affinity chromatography in order to undertake functional studies. No significant differences were observed in substrate ([3H]‐azidopine) binding to wt or cys‐less P‐gp. Furthermore, neither the transported substrate vinblastine, nor the modulator nicardipine, differed in their respective potencies to displace [3H]‐azidopine from the wt or cys‐less P‐gp. These results suggest that respective binding sites for these drugs were unaffected by the introduced cysteine to serine substitutions. The Michaelis‐Menten characteristics of basal ATP hydrolysis of the two isoforms of P‐gp were identical. The maximal ATPase activity in the presence of vinblastine was marginally reduced whilst the Km was unchanged in cys‐less P‐gp compared to control. However, cys‐less P‐gp displayed lower overall maximal ATPase activity (62%), a decreased Km and a lower degree of stimulation (76%) in the presence of the modulator nicardipine. Therefore, the serine to cysteine mutations in P‐gp may suggest that vinblastine and nicardipine transduce their effects on ATP hydrolysis through distinct conformational pathways. The wt and cys‐less P‐gp isoforms display similarity in their fundamental kinetic properties thereby validating the use of cys‐less P‐gp as a template for future cysteine‐directed structure/function analysis.

The expression of P-glycoprotein does influence the distribution of novel fluorescent compounds in solid tumour models

Solid tumours display a complex drug resistance phenotype that involves inherent and acquired mechanisms. Multicellular resistance is an inherent feature of solid tumours and is known to present significant barriers to drug permeation in tumours. Given this barrier, do acquired resistance mechanisms such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) contribute significantly to resistance? To address this question, the multicellular tumour spheroid (MCTS) model was used to examine the influence of P-gp on drug distribution in solid tissue. Tumour spheroids (TS) were generated from either drug-sensitive MCF7WT cells or a drug-resistant, P-gp-expressing derivative MCF7Adr. Confocal microscopy was used to measure time courses and distribution patterns of three fluorescent compounds; calcein-AM, rhodamine123 and BODIPY-taxol. These compounds were chosen because they are all substrates for P-gp-mediated transport, exhibit high fluorescence and are chemically dissimilar. For example, BODIPY-taxol and rhodamine 123 showed high accumulation and distributed extensively throughout the TSWT, whereas calcein-AM accumulation was restricted to the outermost layers. The presence of P-gp in TSAdr resulted in negligible accumulation, regardless of the compound. Moreover, the inhibition of P-gp by nicardipine restored intracellular accumulation and distribution patterns to levels observed in TSWT. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of P-gp in modulating drug distribution in solid tumour models. However, the penetration of agents throughout the tissue is strongly determined by the physico-chemical properties of the individual compounds.

Cd36, a class B scavenger receptor, functions as a monomer to bind acetylated and oxidized low-density lipoproteins

Cd36 is a small‐molecular‐weight integral membrane protein expressed in a diverse, but select, range of cell types. It has an equally diverse range of ligands and physiological functions, which has implicated Cd36 in a number of diseases including insulin resistance, diabetes, and, most notably, atherosclerosis. The protein is reported to reside in detergent‐resistant microdomains within the plasma membrane and to form homo‐ and hetero‐intermolecular interactions. These data suggest that this class B scavenger receptor may gain functionality for ligand binding, and/or ligand internalization, by formation of protein complexes at the cell surface. Here, we have overexpressed Cd36 in insect cells, purified the recombinant protein to homogeneity, and analyzed its stability and solubility in a variety of nonionic and zwitterionic detergents. Octylglucoside conferred the greatest degree of stability, and by analytical ultracentrifugation we show that the protein is monomeric. A solid‐phase ligand‐binding assay demonstrated that the purified monomeric protein retains high affinity for acetylated and oxidized low‐density lipoproteins. Therefore, no accessory proteins are required for interaction with ligand, and binding is a property of the monomeric fold of the protein. Thus, the highly purified and functional Cd36 should be suitable for crystallization in octylglucoside, and the in vitro ligand‐binding assay represents a promising screen for identification of bioactive molecules targeting atherogenesis at the level of ligand binding.