Catherine Schurra

Oncogene-induced senescence is a DNA damage response triggered by DNA hyper-replication

Early tumorigenesis is associated with the engagement of the DNA-damage checkpoint response (DDR). Cell proliferation and transformation induced by oncogene activation are restrained by cellular senescence. It is unclear whether DDR activation and oncogene-induced senescence (OIS) are causally linked. Here we show that senescence, triggered by the expression of an activated oncogene (H-RasV12) in normal human cells, is a consequence of the activation of a robust DDR. Experimental inactivation of DDR abrogates OIS and promotes cell transformation. DDR and OIS are established after a hyper-replicative phase occurring immediately after oncogene expression. Senescent cells arrest with partly replicated DNA and with DNA replication origins having fired multiple times. In vivo DNA labelling and molecular DNA combing reveal that oncogene activation leads to augmented numbers of active replicons and to alterations in DNA replication fork progression. We also show that oncogene expression does not trigger a DDR in the absence of DNA replication. Last, we show that oncogene activation is associated with DDR activation in a mouse model in vivo. We propose that OIS results from the enforcement of a DDR triggered by oncogene-induced DNA hyper-replication.

Color bar coding the BRCA1 gene on combed DNA: A useful strategy for detecting large gene rearrangements

Genetic linkage data have shown that alterations of the BRCA1 gene are responsible for the majority of hereditary breast and ovarian cancers. BRCA1 germline mutations, however, are found less frequently than expected. Mutation detection strategies, which are generally based on the polymerase chain reaction, therefore focus on point and small gene alterations. These approaches do not allow for the detection of large gene rearrangements, which also can be involved in BRCA1 alterations. Indeed, a few of them, spread over the entire BRCA1 gene, have been detected recently by Southern blotting or transcript analysis. We have developed an alternative strategy allowing a panoramic view of the BRCA1 gene, based on dynamic molecular combing and the design of a full four‐color bar code of the BRCA1 region. The strategy was tested with the study of four large BRCA1 rearrangements previously reported. In addition, when screening a series of 10 breast and ovarian cancer families negatively tested for point mutation in BRCA1/2, we found an unreported 17‐kb BRCA1 duplication encompassing exons 3 to 8. The detection of rearrangements as small as 2 to 6 kb with respect to the normal size of the studied fragment is achieved when the BRCA1 region is divided into 10 fragments. In addition, as the BRCA1 bar code is a morphologic approach, the direct observation of complex and likely underreported rearrangements, such as inversions and insertions, becomes possible.

Combing Genomic DNA for Structural and Functional Studies

Molecular combing is a process whereby single DNA molecules bind by their extremities to a silanised surface and are then uniformly stretched and aligned by a receding air/water interface (1). This method, with a high resolution ranging from a few kilobases to megabases, has many applications in the field of molecular cytogenetics, allowing structural and functional analysis at the genome level. Here we describe protocols for preparing DNA for combing and for the use of fluorescent hybridisation (FH) applied to combed DNA to conduct physical mapping or genomic structural analysis. We also present the methodology for visualising and studying DNA replication using combed DNA.

High-resolution comparative hybridization to combed DNA fibers

Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) has proven to be a comprehensive new tool to detect genetic imbalances in genomic DNA. However, the resolution of this method carried out on normal human metaphase spreads is limited to low copy number gains and losses of ≥ 10 Mb. An improved resolution allowing the detection of copy number representations of single genes would strongly enhance the applicability of CGH as a diagnostic and research tool. This goal may be achieved when metaphase chromosomes are replaced by an array of target DNAs representing the genes of interest. To explore the feasibility of such a development in a model system we used cosmid MA2B3, which encompasses about 35 kb in the vicinity of exon 48 of the human dystrophin gene. Linearized cosmid fibers were attached to a glass surface and aligned in parallel by “molecular combing”. Two-color fluorescence in situ suppression hybridization was performed on these cosmid fibers with probe mixtures containing different ratios (ranging from 1:2 to 4:1) of biotin- and digoxigenin-labeled MA2B3 cosmid DNAs. For each mixture fluorescence ratios were determined for 40–50 individual combed DNA molecules. In two series comprising a total of 651 molecules the median fluorescence ratio measurements revealed a linear relationship with the chosen probe ratios. Our study demonstrates that fluorescence ratio measurements on single DNA molecules can be performed successfully.

Lsd1 and Lsd2 Control Programmed Replication Fork Pauses and Imprinting in Fission Yeast

In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, a chromosomal imprinting event controls the asymmetric pattern of mating-type switching. The orientation of DNA replication at the mating-type locus is instrumental in this process. However, the factors leading to imprinting are not fully identified and the mechanism is poorly understood. Here, we show that the replication fork pause at the mat1 locus (MPS1), essential for imprint formation, depends on the lysine-specific demethylase Lsd1. We demonstrate that either Lsd1 or Lsd2 amine oxidase activity is required for these processes, working upstream of the imprinting factors Swi1 and Swi3 (homologs of mammalian Timeless and Tipin, respectively). We also show that the Lsd1/2 complex controls the replication fork terminators, within the rDNA repeats. These findings reveal a role for the Lsd1/2 demethylases in controlling polar replication fork progression, imprint formation, and subsequent asymmetric cell divisions.

Regulating retrotransposon activity through the use of alternative transcription start sites

Retrotransposons, the ancestors of retroviruses, have the potential for gene disruption and genomic takeover if not kept in check. Paradoxically, although host cells repress these elements by multiple mechanisms, they are transcribed and are even activated under stress conditions. Here, we describe a new mechanism of retrotransposon regulation through transcription start site (TSS) selection by altered nucleosome occupancy. We show that Fun30 chromatin remodelers cooperate to maintain a high level of nucleosome occupancy at retrotransposon‐flanking long terminal repeat (LTR) elements. This enforces the use of a downstream TSS and the production of a truncated RNA incapable of reverse transcription and retrotransposition. However, in stressed cells, nucleosome occupancy at LTR elements is reduced, and the TSS shifts to allow for productive transcription. We propose that controlled retrotransposon transcription from a nonproductive TSS allows for rapid stress‐induced activation, while preventing uncontrolled transposon activity in the genome.

High-resolution mapping of the X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome region by FISH on combed DNA

X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome is an inherited immunodeficiency for which the responsible gene is currently unknown. Several megabase-sized deleted regions mapping to Xq25 have been identified in XLP patients, and more recently a 130-kb deletion has been reported (Lamartine et al., 1996; Lanyi et al., 1996). To establish a physical map of this deleted region and to identify the XLP gene, two cosmid contigs were established (Lamartine et al., 1996). However, the physical map of this region is still uncompleted and controversial and three points remain unsolved: (1) the centromeric-telomeric orientation of the whole region, (2) the relative orientation of the two contigs, and (3) the size of the gap between the two contigs. To provide a definitive answer to these questions, high-resolution mapping by fluorescence in situ hybridization on combed DNA and molecular approaches were combined to establish the physical map of the XLP region over 600 kb. Our results identified a gap of 150 kb between the two contigs, established the relative orientation of one contig to the other, and determine the centromeric-telomeric orientation of the whole region. Our results show that the order of the marker over this region is: cen...1D10T7–DF83–DXS982...tel.

UNIT 8.10 Molecular Combing

This unit describes an important advance in fiber‐FISH technology called molecular combing, in which single DNA molecules are bound by one or both ends to a surface and stretched in a uniform and parallel manner by a receding meniscus. This technique is gentle on the molecules, rapid, and easy to perform. Reliable, quantitative information for genome‐wide studies can be obtained without the need for other techniques and a large number of accurate measurements can be made in a single experiment. The authors provide detailed protocols for basic molecular combing, high‐resolution physical mapping, and gene‐dosage approaches as well as support protocols outlining surface preparation, DNA solution preparation, and probe labeling.