Cathy Urquhart

Putting the ‘theory’ back into grounded theory: guidelines for grounded theory studies in information systems

Over the past decade, there has been increasing interest in the use of grounded theory in information systems research. Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that seeks to develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analysed. The purpose of this paper is to suggest guidelines for grounded theory studies in information systems. Our guidelines are based on a framework for theorizing in grounded theory studies that focuses on conceptualization and theory scope. Our hope is that the guidelines will help to raise the quality and aspirations of grounded theory studies in information systems.

Using Grounded Theory Method in Information Systems: The Researcher as Blank Slate and Other Myths

The use of grounded theory method (GTM) as a research method in information systems (IS) has gradually increased over the years as qualitative research in general has become more prevalent. The method offers a systematic way to generate theory from data, but is rarely used to its full potential in IS as a number of myths and misunderstandings about GTM prevent researchers from getting the full potential out of the method. To address this problem, we advance the general level of knowledge of GTM. We clarify aspects of the method that are often misunderstood by novice users or casual observers and provide guidance to address common problems. Exemplars from the IS literature are used to illustrate the concepts and to promote the informed use of the methodology. By doing so, this paper will contribute to improving the use of the method and to the quality and dissemination of grounded theory research outcomes.

Software process improvement success factors for small and medium Web companies: A qualitative study

Context: The context of this research is software process improvement (SPI) in small and medium Web companies. Objective: The primary objective of this paper is to identify software process improvement (SPI) success factors for small and medium Web companies. Method: To achieve this goal, we conducted semi-structured, open-ended interviews with 21 participants representing 11 different companies in Pakistan, and analyzed the data qualitatively using the Glaserian strand of grounded theory research procedures. The key steps of these procedures that were employed in this research included open coding, focused coding, theoretical coding, theoretical sampling, constant comparison, and scaling up. Results: An initial framework of key SPI success factors for small and medium Web companies was proposed, which can be of use for small and medium Web companies engaged in SPI. The paper also differentiates between small and medium Web companies and analyzes crucial SPI requirements for companies operating in the Web development domain. Conclusion: The results of this work, in particular the use of qualitative techniques - allowed us to obtain rich insight into SPI success factors for small and medium Web companies. Future work comprises the validation of the SPI success factors with small and medium Web companies.

No man is an island: Social and human capital in IT capacity building in the Maldives

In many developing countries, lack of IT skills and human capital impede the potential of IT investments in organizations in developing countries [Lee, J. (2001). Education for technology readiness: Prospects for developing countries. Journal of Human Development, 2(1), 115-151]. This paper draws upon theories of human and social capital, and knowledge, to explain enablers/obstacles for knowledge creation and transfer for IT capacity building in a tourism organization in a developing country - the Maldives. IT capacity building is intimately linked to knowledge and skills at the level of human resource development. Using the Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998) [Nahapiet, J., & Ghoshal, S. (1998). Social capital, intellectual capital, and the organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review, 23, 242-267] framework for the role of social capital in knowledge creation and transfer, we examine the major issues of IT capacity building for the case organization. We conclude that the role of cognitive capital is the most important for the tourism sector of the Maldives, and may play a vital role in accumulating structural and relational capital, together with appropriate government policies on ICT.

Tapping the educational potential of Facebook: Guidelines for use in higher education

Facebook is a frequently used Computer Mediated Environment (CME) for students and others to build social connections, with identities and deposited self-expression. Its widespread use makes it appropriate for consideration as an educational tool; though one that does not yet have clear guidelines for use. Whether a social networking site can be used for educational objectives remains largely unexplored as a research question. This paper discusses a study conducted at the University of Auckland and at Manchester Metropolitan University on how their students use Facebook, and its impact on their social and academic lives. Using theories of social capital and knowledge management, we explore some potential educational uses of Facebook. Guidelines are included for the educational use of Facebook by tutors in a university environment. These include both positive recommendations and activities and approaches to avoid; and include educational, administrative and legal issues.

ICTs and poverty reduction: a social capital and knowledge perspective

The efficacy of information and communication technology (ICT) projects and initiatives in developing countries, and how they may assist poverty reduction or otherwise improve the quality of life for communities in those countries, is still a topic of debate. Knowledge empowers people, while information technology integrates such knowledge for purposeful action and reaction. This paper describes a framework, based on social capital and knowledge management theories, which aims to further that debate in the field of information systems. The framework is primarily a sensitising device, designed to assist thinking about how social capital and knowledge theories facilitate ICT interventions for poverty reduction. The framework has four stages, the process of ICT development, the ICT intervention, the evaluation of the impact of the ICT intervention and the process of poverty reduction, which is the final and most contested stage of an ICT intervention. Each stage of the framework is discussed, using illustrations from various development projects. Finally, the paper draws some conclusions about the contribution of social capital and knowledge management theories to the issue of ICT intervention and evaluation in developing countries.

Analysts and clients in organisational contexts: a conversational perspective

Abstract This paper takes a conversational perspective on the issue of analyst–client interaction, concentrating on how social and organisational contexts impact on the verbal process of defining a new information system. It has been suggested that organisational agendas are built from talk at the interactional level (Boden, 1994), and this paper seeks to explore the relationship between social and organisational contexts and the process of early requirements gathering. Analysts and clients were asked about their aims, their professional role, and other issues that arose in their interactions with each other as part of a larger study in early requirements gathering. The paper discusses three themes from three case studies that can be seen to be embedded in the social and organisational context of early requirements gathering—how the issues to be discussed during the interaction were put forward, professional relationships, and the overall organisational context in which the interaction takes place. Some observations are made about the varying social and organisational contexts of early requirements gathering and the role of individual differences, and the possibility of using typical contexts as ‘ repertoire building research ’ (Schon, 1983) to flow into practice.

On Emergence and Forcing in Information Systems Grounded Theory Studies: The Case of Strauss and Corbin

Grounded theory method (GTM), which has been increasingly used in the information systems (IS) field, is a contested method. GTM has even been viewed as a family of methods by Antony Bryant and Kathy Charmaz in the respected ‘Handbook of Grounded Theory’. One debate that is of particular relevance is about the metaphor of ‘emergence’ and the most basic rule of GTM – that researchers should not force preconceived conceptualizations on data. This debate has its origins in a dispute between the two co-founders of grounded theory, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. Glaser criticized Strauss for the introduction of the stage of axial coding and the use of one single coding paradigm. In his view, the paradigm is too rigid, forces data, hinders emergence, and leads to conceptual description instead of grounded theory. It is perhaps surprising then, that this debate has so far been conducted without any empirical evidence in support of the proposition that the Strauss and Corbin version of grounded theory might result in forcing. In this article, we analyse IS studies in top journals where Straussian grounded theory procedures – which have found most adherents in the IS discipline – are utilized. We provide detailed insights into the use and the impact of axial coding and the coding paradigm. We find that the researchers’ use of Straussian coding procedures in the IS field is on a level that is conscious and deliberative. We relate our findings to the broader debate about the contested nature of GTM, and find that axial coding and the coding paradigm are an exemplar that shows that GTM is an evolving method that is subject to idiosyncratic interpretations and flexible deployment. Our findings, we argue, are in line with the more recent development of constructivist grounded theory that holds that grounded theories are not discovered, they are constructed, based on conscious decisions and interpretive acts. We also put forward three propositions, and five guidelines, intended to assist IS researchers in constructing grounded theories using Straussian coding procedures, while adhering to the primacy of avoiding preconceptions.

Themes in early requirements gathering the case of the analyst, the client and the student assistance scheme

Discusses the qualitative analysis of a case study of analyst‐client communications using grounded theory and themed analyses. Describes in detail the interaction that took place between an analyst and a client in a public sector agency in Tasmania, Australia. Uses a theatrical metaphor to give a representation that encompasses chronological and contextual aspects, providing an immediacy that enables the reader to appreciate how the interaction developed over time. Using concepts derived from the use of grounded theory techniques, demonstrates how these concepts and themes operated in this particular case. Concludes with a general discussion of themes and contextual influences as they occur in the case of the student assistance scheme and other cases studied by the author.

Unveiling the modernity bias: a critical examination of the politics of ICT4D

The issue of politics in information and communication technology for development (ICT4D) research is rarely debated, yet one of the key instrumental freedoms proposed by Sen [(1999). Development as freedom. New York: First Anchor Books] in his seminal book on development is political liberty for individuals. We argue that ICT4D initiatives are predominantly informed by a modernist philosophy, which in their effort to bring some material progress risk granting technological tools a major role. This view assumes that ICT4D users are merely passive recipients of the benefits of technology. Moreover, it implies that development can only be brought by those in a more developed, powerful position. This in itself is a political viewpoint, and thus politics is embedded in the design of ICT4D projects. Building on Sens (1999) capability framework, we discuss how far ICT4D projects are able to assist political liberty of the alleged beneficiaries, given that political liberties are constrained by wider institutional factors. We conclude by making a call for researchers to more critically examine the structure and intention of ICT4D projects.