Cees Leeuwis

Reconceptualizing Participation for Sustainable Rural Development: Towards a Negotiation Approach

In many popular intervention methodologies aimed at stimulating sustainable rural development (in the widest possible sense) the idea of ‘participation’ is a leading principle. This article will demonstrate that the process in which actors are supposed to participate is often thought of as being a process of planning, decision-making and/or social learning. It will be argued that such an operationalization of development processes is based on inconsistent theoretical assumptions, and can easily lead to unproductive development interventions due to an inability to handle conflicts. As an alternative it is proposed to use negotiation theory as a basis for organizing participatory development efforts. The implications of such a shift in thinking about participation are far-reaching: it requires new modes of analysis, and different roles, tasks and skills for facilitators of participatory processes.

Rethinking communication in innovation processes: creating space for change in complex systems

ABSTRACT This paper systematically rethinks the role of communication in innovation processes, starting from largely separate theoretical developments in communication science and innovation studies. Literature review forms the basis of the arguments presented. The paper concludes that innovation is a collective process that involves the contextual re-ordering of relations in multiple social networks. Such re-ordering cannot be usefully understood in terms of ‘diffusing’ ready-made innovations. Hence, we need to think about communication as playing a role in innovation development and ‘design’. In such development processes, everyday communicative exchanges and self-organisation among societal agents are likely to be of critical significance in connection with the re-ordering of social relationships. In this light, the role of communication professionals and deliberate communication is often overstated or misinterpreted. Instead of striving for predefined change, communication professionals should facilitate that ‘the potential for change’ in complex dynamical settings increases. This includes efforts to enhance the survival chances of existing initiatives for change, by facilitating that they become more effectively adapted and/or linked to their dynamic selection environment than competing initiatives. This implies that communication professionals must play broader intermediary roles than before. A systematic rethinking of the role of communication in innovation processes in view of recent developments in communication sciences, innovation studies and complex systems thinking is largely absent. This paper fills a void.

Evolution of systems approaches to agricultural innovation: concepts, analysis and interventions

Over the years, there has been an evolution of systemic thinking in agricultural innovation studies, culminating in the agricultural innovation systems perspective. In an attempt to synthesize and organize the existing literature, this chapter reviews the literature on agricultural innovation, with the threefold goal of (1) sketching the evolution of systemic approaches to agricultural innovation and unravelling the different interpretations; (2) assessing key factors for innovation system performance and demonstrating the use of system thinking in the facilitation of processes of agricultural innovation by means of innovation brokers and reflexive process monitoring; and (3) formulating an agenda for future research. The main conclusion is that the agricultural innovation systems perspective provides a comprehensive view on actors and factors that co-determine innovation, and in this sense allows understanding the complexity of agricultural innovation. However, its holism is also a pitfall as it allows for many interpretations, which complicates a clear focus of this research field and the building of cumulative evidence. Hence, more work needs to be done conceptually and empirically.

Strengthening agricultural innovation capacity: are innovation brokers the answer?

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Enhancing the Reflexivity of System Innovation Projects with System Analyses.

Networks aiming for fundamental changes bring together a variety of actors who are part and parcel of a problematic context. These system innovation projects need to be accompanied by a monitoring and evaluation approach that supports and maintains reflexivity to be able to deal with uncertainties and conflicts while challenging current practices and related institutions. This article reports on experiences with reflexive process monitoring (RPM)—an approach that has been applied in several networks in the Dutch agricultural sector, which strive for sustainable development. Particular attention is paid to conducting system analyses—a core element of the methodology. The first results show that system analyses indeed have the potential to enhance reflexivity if carried out collectively. However, regular patterns of thinking and acting within projects interfere in subtle ways with the new knowledge generated and limit the transformation of the reflexive feedback and insights into action.

Improving Potato Production in Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia: A System Diagnosis

Increased productivity of potatoes can improve the livelihood of smallholder potato farmers in Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia and is required to meet the growing demand. This paper investigates the opportunities for potato system improvement that could result in improved productivity. Through a diagnosis of the potato systems in the three countries on the basis of surveys and stakeholder workshops, seed potato quality management, bacterial wilt control, late blight control and soil fertility management were identified as key technical intervention topics. For effective problem solving in these areas, the functioning of the potato innovation system requires improvement to better deliver the functions of potato marketing as well as knowledge development and information exchange. With use of a ‘system failure framework’ the shortcomings of the potato innovation system are identified and discussed and options for improvement are suggested.

A Description of Seed Potato Systems in Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia

Seed potato systems in East Africa are described and opportunities for improvement identified on the basis of interviews with potato producers in Kenya, Uganda and Ethiopia, and an assessment of Ralstonia solanacearum and virus disease levels in Kenya. 3% of seed potato sold in Kenyan markets was virus free. Ralstonia solanacearum was found in 74% of potato farms. Less than 5% of the farmers interviewed source seed potato from specialized seed growers. Over 50% rely entirely on farm-saved seed. Current seed potato prices justify this behavior. To improve the system the local and specialized chain need to be tackled simultaneously. To improve the local chain ware potato farmers require training on seed quality maintenance and managing bacterial wilt and viruses. Research into virus resistance and the effect of mixed virus infection on yield deserves attention. Private investment in seed potato production could increase volumes produced and reduce prices.ResumenSe describen sistemas de semillas de papa en África del Este y se identifican oportunidades de mejora basándose en entrevistas con productores de papas en Kenia, Uganda y Etiopía y una evaluación de los niveles de las enfermedades causadas por Ralstonia solanacearum y virus en Kenia. El 3% de la semilla de papa vendido en los mercados de Kenia estaba libre de virus. Se encontró Ralstonia solanacearum en 74% de las explotaciones agrarias de papa. Menos del 5% de los agricultores entrevistados obtienen semillas de papa de agricultores especializados en semillas. Más del 50% dependen totalmente de las semillas almacenadas en la explotación agraria. Los precios actuales de semilla de papa justifican este comportamiento. Para mejorar el sistema, se debe abordar simultáneamente tanto la cadena local y la especializada. Para mejorar la cadena local, los agricultores de papa para consumo humano necesitan capacitación sobre el mantenimiento de la calidad de la semilla y manejo de la marchités bacteriana y virus. La investigación sobre resistencia a los virus y el efecto de la infección de mezcla de virus sobre el rendimiento merece atención. La inversión privada en la producción de semilla de papa podría aumentar los volúmenes de producción y reducir los precios.

Beyond knowledge brokerage: An exploratory study of innovation intermediaries in an evolving smallholder agricultural system in Kenya

The recognition that innovation occurs in networks of heterogeneous actors and requires broad systemic support beyond knowledge brokering has resulted in a changing landscape in the intermediary domain in the increasingly market-driven agricultural sector in developing countries. This paper presents findings of an explorative case study that looked at 22 organizations identified as fulfilling an intermediary role in the Kenyan agricultural sector. The results show that these organizations fulfill functions that are not limited to distribution of knowledge and putting it into use but also include fostering integration and interaction among the diverse actors engaged in innovation networks and working on technological, organizational, and institutional innovation. Further, the study has identified various organizational arrangements of innovation intermediaries, with some organizations fulfilling a specialized innovation brokering role and other intermediaries taking on brokering as a side activity, while substantively contributing to the innovation process. On the basis of these findings, we identify a typology of four innovation intermediation arrangements including technology broker, systemic broker, enterprise development support, and input access support. The results indicate that innovation brokering is a pervasive task in supporting innovation and will require policy support to embed it in innovation support arrangements, but without prescribing a one-size-fits-all approach.

Causes of low productivity of cocoa in Ghana: farmers' perspectives and insights from research and the socio-political establishment

Ghana is a major producer of cocoa in the world and relies heavily on the crop for foreign exchange revenue. However, production declined since the mid-1960s, reaching its lowest level in 1983. Although production has increased consistently since the mid-1980s, it still is less than the level attained in the mid-1960s. The decline is partly a result of decreasing areas under cultivation. Another problem in cocoa production in Ghana is low yields per ha, which is attributed to the incidence of pests and diseases, a low producer price, and non-adoption of research recommendations. Based on the idea that current research and extension messages might insufficiently address farmers’ actual problems and context, a diagnostic study was carried out to better understand farmers’ views on the problems of cocoa production. The study was conducted in three villages in the Suhum-Kraboa-Coalter District, Eastern Region, Ghana. An action research approach was followed to gather and analyse qualitative data with the objective of stimulating collective action in subsequent research activities with the farmers. Low productivity was identified as the main problem and the causes were classified into biological and socioeconomic factors. The biological factors include the incidence of pests and diseases, most of which have received extensive research attention in Ghana, and of epiphytes, which have been neglected. The socioeconomic causes were indirect and include the low producer price and the lack of amenities like electricity, which leads to migration, with as a result labour shortages and high labour costs. From the study it can be concluded that the biological and socio-economic causes of low productivity are inter-related in such a manner that tackling them separately will not overcome the problem unless the socio-technical nature of the causes are recognized and tackled in a holistic way. In this context, current interventions by research and extension seem to ignore important aspects of the problematic situation. Although the study shows the relevance of using a diagnostic approach, it is argued that outcomes may be affected by various contextual factors, including stakeholder selection and the relationship between the researcher and the participants. Hence, the outcomes of a diagnostic study should be approached with care.

The SolarMal Project: innovative mosquito trapping technology for malaria control

The use of insecticides against mosquitoes, and drugs to treat infection, continue to form the mainstays of malaria control programmes, but the long term success and sustainability of these approaches is threatened by the development of insecticide and drug resistance. New complementary approaches to control must be explored. The development by Okumu and others [1] of a blend of synthetic chemical attractants which was capable of attracting more Anopheles gambiae s.s. than a human, provided the key breakthrough towards creation of a mass trapping system which could be used for malaria control. By luring Anopheles mosquitoes to traps in numbers that are high enough to suppress population size and reduce biting intensity, a decline in malaria transmission could be realized. Here we describe our plans for the development and testing of odour-baited traps for malaria control in Western Kenya. The SolarMal project aims to demonstrate proof of principle for the elimination of malaria from Rusinga Island, Western Kenya, using the nationwide adopted strategy of LLINs and case management, augmented by mass trapping of mosquito vectors. The use of novel technology and scientific development underpins all areas of the project; from the optimisation of chemical baits to attract mosquitoes, to the design of a new mosquito trap and the installation of solar panel systems to provide power to run the traps. Electronic tablets are used to record health and demographic surveillance data. The mosquito traps operate according to a counterflow mechanism previously shown to be highly effective in collecting anopheline mosquitoes [2] and are designed to collect mosquitoes outdoors prior to house entry. Odour baits placed within the traps mimic human odourants [3]. In a unique variation on the stepped wedge intervention strategy, which we refer to as the hierarchical design, intervention implementation begins at one randomly selected household and expands radially until a cluster of houses with the intervention is created. The intervention implementation then commences in a second geographically distinct location, then a third, fourth, fifth etc, continuing until the whole island is covered. Outcome measures of malaria parasite prevalence and incidence, as well as estimates of malaria transmission intensity, will be used to assess the impact of the intervention. We expect the results to demonstrate that the use of odour baited traps is an effective, novel means of integrated malaria control.