Celine de Esch

Zebrafish as potential model for developmental neurotoxicity testing: A mini review

The zebrafish is a powerful toxicity model; biochemical assays can be combined with observations at a structural and functional level within one individual. This mini review summarises the potency of zebrafish as a model for developmental neurotoxicity screening, and its possibilities to investigate working mechanisms of toxicants. The use of zebrafish in toxicity research can ultimately lead to the refinement or reduction of animal use.

Chronic administration of AFQ056/Mavoglurant restores social behaviour in Fmr1 knockout mice

Fragile X syndrome is caused by lack of FMR1 protein (FMRP) leading to severe symptoms, including intellectual disability, hyperactivity and autistic-like behaviour. FMRP is an RNA binding protein involved in the regulation of translation of specific target mRNAs upon stimulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) at the synapse. The absence of FMRP leads to enhanced activity of mGluR5 signal transduction pathways. Many conflicting results have been reported regarding social behaviour deficits in Fmr1 knockout mice, and little is known about the involvement of mGluR5 pathways on social behaviour. In this study, a three-chambered task was used to determine sociability and preference for social novelty in Fmr1 knockout mice. Disruption of Fmr1 functioning resulted in enhanced interaction with stranger mouse during sociability while no significant changes were observed during preference for social novelty assay. Chronic administration of a specific mGluR5 antagonist, AFQ056/Mavoglurant, was able to restore sociability behaviour of Fmr1 knockout mice to levels of wild type littermates. These results support the importance of mGluR5 signalling pathways on social interaction behaviour and that AFQ056/Mavoglurant might be useful as potential therapeutic intervention to rescue various behavioural aspects of the fragile X phenotype.

Locomotor activity assay in zebrafish larvae: Influence of age, strain and ethanol ☆

Several characteristics warrant the zebrafish a refining animal model for toxicity testing in rodents, thereby contributing to the 3R principles (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement) in animal testing, e.g. its small size, ease of obtaining a high number of progeny, external fertilization, transparency and rapid development of the embryo, and a basic understanding of its gene function and physiology. In this context we explored the motor activity pattern of zebrafish larvae, using a 96-well microtiter plate and a video-tracking system. Effects of induced light and darkness on locomotion of zebrafish larvae of different wild-type strains and ages (AB and TL, 5, 6 and 7 dpf; n=25/group) were studied. Locomotion was also measured in zebrafish larvae after exposure to different concentrations of ethanol (0; 0.5; 1; 2 and 4%) (AB and TL strain, 6 dpf; n=19/group). Zebrafish larvae showed a relatively high swimming activity in darkness when compared to the activity in light. Small differences were found between wild-type strains and/or age. Ethanol exposure resulted in hyperactivity (0.5-2%) and in hypo-activity (4%). In addition, the limitations and/or relevance of the parameters distance moved, duration of movements and velocity are exemplified and discussed. Together, the results support the suggestion that zebrafish may act as an animal refining alternative for toxicity testing in rodents provided internal and external environmental stimuli are controlled. As such, light, age and strain differences must be taken into account.

Rescue of dendritic spine phenotype in Fmr1 KO mice with the mGluR5 antagonist AFQ056/Mavoglurant

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the leading monogenic cause of intellectual disability and autism. The disease is a result of lack of expression of the fragile X mental retardation protein. Brain tissues of patients with FXS and mice with FMRP deficiency have shown an abnormal dendritic spine phenotype. We investigated the dendritic spine length and density of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons in 2-, 10-, and 25-week-old Fmr1 knockout (KO). Next, we studied the effects of long-term treatment with an mGluR5 antagonist, AFQ056/Mavoglurant, on the spine phenotype in adult Fmr1 KO mice. We observed alterations in the spine phenotype during development, with a decreased spine length in 2-week-old Fmr1 KO mice compared with age-match wild-type littermates, but with increased spine length in Fmr1 KO mice compared with 10- and 25-week-old wild-type controls. No difference was found in spine density at any age. We report a rescue of the abnormal spine length in adult Fmr1 KO mice after a long-term treatment with AFQ056/Mavoglurant. This finding suggests that long-term treatment at later stage is sufficient to reverse the structural spine abnormalities and represents a starting point for future studies aimed at improving treatments for FXS.

Epigenetic characterization of the FMR1 promoter in induced pluripotent stem cells from human fibroblasts carrying an unmethylated full mutation

Summary Silencing of the FMR1 gene leads to fragile X syndrome, the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability. To study the epigenetic modifications of the FMR1 gene during silencing in time, we used fibroblasts and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) of an unmethylated full mutation (uFM) individual with normal intelligence. The uFM fibroblast line carried an unmethylated FMR1 promoter region and expressed normal to slightly increased FMR1 mRNA levels. The FMR1 expression in the uFM line corresponds with the increased H3 acetylation and H3K4 methylation in combination with a reduced H3K9 methylation. After reprogramming, the FMR1 promoter region was methylated in all uFM iPSC clones. Two clones were analyzed further and showed a lack of FMR1 expression, whereas the presence of specific histone modifications also indicated a repressed FMR1 promoter. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that the standard reprogramming procedure leads to epigenetic silencing of the fully mutated FMR1 gene.

A novel fragile X syndrome mutation reveals a conserved role for the carboxy‐terminus in FMRP localization and function

Loss of function of the FMR1 gene leads to fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common form of intellectual disability. The loss of FMR1 function is usually caused by epigenetic silencing of the FMR1 promoter leading to expansion and subsequent methylation of a CGG repeat in the 5′ untranslated region. Very few coding sequence variations have been experimentally characterized and shown to be causal to the disease. Here, we describe a novel FMR1 mutation and reveal an unexpected nuclear export function for the C‐terminus of FMRP. We screened a cohort of patients with typical FXS symptoms who tested negative for CGG repeat expansion in the FMR1 locus. In one patient, we identified a guanine insertion in FMR1 exon 15. This mutation alters the open reading frame creating a short novel C‐terminal sequence, followed by a stop codon. We find that this novel peptide encodes a functional nuclear localization signal (NLS) targeting the patient FMRP to the nucleolus in human cells. We also reveal an evolutionarily conserved nuclear export function associated with the endogenous C‐terminus of FMRP. In vivo analyses in Drosophila demonstrate that a patient‐mimetic mutation alters the localization and function of Dfmrp in neurons, leading to neomorphic neuronal phenotypes.

Delay and Impairment in Brain Development and Function in Rat Offspring After Maternal Exposure to Methylmercury

Maternal exposure to the neurotoxin methylmercury (MeHg) has been shown to have adverse effects on neural development of the offspring in man. Little is known about the underlying mechanisms by which MeHg affects the developing brain. To explore the neurodevelopmental defects and the underlying mechanism associated with MeHg exposure, the cerebellum and cerebrum of Wistar rat pups were analyzed by [(18)F]FDG PET functional imaging, field potential analysis, and microarray gene expression profiling. Female rat pups were exposed to MeHg via maternal diet during intrauterinal and lactational period (from gestational day 6 to postnatal day (PND)10), and their brain tissues were sampled for the analysis at weaning (PND18-21) and adulthood (PND61-70). The [(18)F]FDG PET imaging and field potential analysis suggested a delay in brain activity and impaired neural function by MeHg. Genome-wide transcriptome analysis substantiated these findings by showing (1) a delay in the onset of gene expression related to neural development, and (2) alterations in pathways related to both structural and functional aspects of nervous system development. The latter included changes in gene expression of developmental regulators, developmental phase-associated genes, small GTPase signaling molecules, and representatives of all processes required for synaptic transmission. These findings were observed at dose levels at which only marginal changes in conventional developmental toxicity endpoints were detected. Therefore, the approaches applied in this study are promising in terms of yielding increased sensitivity compared with classical developmental toxicity tests.

Translational endpoints in fragile X syndrome

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) occurs in less than 10% of the intellectually disabled (ID) population. The cause of FXS is a CGG trinucleotide repeat longer than 200 CGG units within the first exon of the FMR1 gene, which leads to hypermethylation and consequently silencing of the FMR1 gene. The lack of FMR1s gene product, the fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) in neurons is the cause of the ID in patients with FXS. FMRP plays an important role in local protein synthesis at the synapse including modulation of synaptic plasticity. The advancing knowledge about the cellular function of FMRP has led to the identification of translational endpoints for future therapeutic intervention strategies. This review highlights the challenging routes to the identification of reliable outcome measures in preclinical studies using both cellular models and Fmr1 knockout mice. Finally, clinical studies carried out to correct intellectual and behavioral deficits in patients with FXS, using a variety of existing and new drugs, are discussed.

Positioning of leukocyte subsets in the portal and lobular compartments of hepatitis C virus-infected liver correlates with local chemokine expression.

Chronic hepatitis C virus infection is characterized by infiltration of a mixed population of leukocytes into portal tracts and infiltration almost exclusively by CD8+ T cells into lobules of the liver. This pattern of leukocyte recruitment is likely to be orchestrated in a cell‐specific fashion by local chemokine expression.

CXorf56 , a dendritic neuronal protein, identified as a new candidate gene for X-linked intellectual disability

Intellectual disability (ID) comprises a large group of heterogeneous disorders, often without a known molecular cause. X-linked ID accounts for 5–10% of male ID cases. We investigated a large, three-generation family with mild ID and behavior problems in five males and one female, with a segregation suggestive for X-linked inheritance. Linkage analysis mapped a disease locus to a 7.6u2009Mb candidate region on the X-chromosome (LOD score 3.3). Whole-genome sequencing identified a 2u2009bp insertion in exon 2 of the chromosome X open reading frame 56 gene (CXorf56), resulting in a premature stop codon. This insertion was present in all intellectually impaired individuals and carrier females. Additionally, X-inactivation status showed skewed methylation patterns favoring the inactivation of the mutated allele in the unaffected carrier females. We demonstrate that the insertion leads to nonsense-mediated decay and that CXorf56 mRNA expression is reduced in the impaired males and female. In murine brain slices and primary hippocampal neuronal cultures, CXorf56 protein was present and localized in the nucleus, cell soma, dendrites, and dendritic spines. Although no other families have been identified with pathogenic variants in CXorf56, these results suggest that CXorf56 is the causative gene in this family, and thus a novel candidate gene for X-linked ID with behavior problems.