César González Cantón

Relational Dimensions of the Human Being

The human person is a relational being. One initial aspect of this is the human-to-nature relationship. Humans use nature, as other animals do, to obtain food, protect themselves and acquire a habitat, but through their work humans also transform nature for many different purposes. Some theories are anthropocentric, placing human beings above nature. Sometimes they are presented as tyrants, at others as stewards caring for the environment and seeking sustainability. Other approaches see the human person merely as one living species among others (biocentrism) or as a mere part of the ecosystem (ecocentrism).

Human Nature and the Uniqueness of Each Person

The human body is very similar to the bodies of other mammals, but there are also great differences, even in the case of primates. These differences include a regular bipedal locomotion and a relatively larger brain with its particularly well-developed neocortex, prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes. But the main difference between humans and other species is not anatomic. Humans are capable of abstract knowledge and possess a rich language, reasoning and complex problem-solving abilities, creativity and a capacity for innovation, reflective learning, moral conscience, religion, funeral rites for the dead, behaviors that denote praise and punishment, and specific forms of social life and cooperation in the development of cultures and civilization.

Knowledge of the Human Being through Science

Science — particularly social sciences, such as psychology, cognitive science, sociology and economy — contributes significantly to our knowledge of human behavior. Neuroscience contributes to understanding the human person through the study of the brain and nervous system.

Views of the Human Being in Religions and Philosophies

Religions and related wisdom traditions provide global visions of the world, which generally include a coherent view of the human being. Ancient Asian religions and philosophies, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism (or Daoism), though quite different from each other, generally share the view of the human person as a social being endowed with a spiritual element — a soul — and open to transcendence, and in harmony with the natural environment. They include values or role models for good behavior, which entails a certain capacity for acting morally.

The Idea of the Human Person in Management and Organizational Theories

Management and organizational theories include philosophical assumptions and values. They presuppose a certain view of the human being. In this chapter, we present a brief overview of the idea of the human individual in certain key theories of management and organizations.

The Human Will and Character

Human will refers to the human capacity to actively decide what to do instead of reacting automatically to stimuli. Although we sometimes act impulsively and without reflection, we have the ability to select different courses of action after rational deliberation, to choose one action from among two or more alternatives.

Action, Human Flourishing and Moral Discernment

Grasping the human action is crucial for both making decisions and managing people within organizations. The human action entails many elements previously dealt with, such as rationality emotions and motivations, will, learning and habits, along with relations with others. It also involves moral discernment, which is a significant human trait. This is the ability to perceive and evaluate the quality of actions and behaviors from the perspective of good and evil.

The Homo Economicus Model

Economics, management and organizational theories assume, at least implicitly, a certain model of the human being, and this has significant consequences for the subsequent development of such theories and the practice of management. So far the dominant model has been, and continues to be, that of the homo economicus, although with certain variants. Homo economicus, in simple terms, is an individual with interests and preferences and a rational capacity oriented to maximizing those preferences, which are usually considered as self-regarding.

Reason and Rational Knowledge

Economic theories, as well as theories of management and organizations, appeal continually to “rationality,” although this is seen solely as a calculative capacity to select efficient means.

Feelings, Emotions, and Aesthetic Experience

Affectivity describes the experience of feelings and emotions. The sphere of affectivity is highly relevant in organizations and management, as well as in other areas of life, which explains the attention currently paid to this phenomenon by philosophy, psychology, and neurophysiology. There are somatic aspects of emotions — activities in the brain — and cognitive ones. It seems reasonable to consider both aspects simultaneously.