Charles L. Gruder

Factors determining choice of a comparison other

Abstract Subjects were tested in groups of nine for the presence of the positively valued trait of intellectual flexibility (Pos conditions) or the negatively valued trait of intellectual rigidity (Neg conditions). The subjects were told the approximate range of the groups test scores (R conditions) or they were not told the range (NR conditions). After the tests were scored, all subjects were told that they ranked fifth in the group of nine and were given their own scores. In the first variation of the experiment, the subjects were then asked to indicate which other score in the group (according to rank) they would most like to see. The subjects were then asked to indicate a second choice. It was predicted that: (1) NR subjects would attempt to determine the range by first choosing the highest numerical score, and (2) among R subjects, those in the Pos condition would choose a higher score for their first choice, while those in the Neg condition would choose a lower score, both groups thus comparing in the positively valued direction, and (3) among R subjects, the most frequent choice in the positively valued direction would be of the most similar other. All predictions were supported. In the second variation, the subjects were asked to indicate which other person in the group they would like as an interaction partner later in the hour. As in the first experiment, a second choice was also obtained. The strongest tendency was for subjects to choose the two most extreme others in the positively valued direction, although there was also a significant tendency to choose the two most similar others, as well as the best and worst others. When choosing a referent person for comparison, an individuals first need is to determine the boundaries of the scale. Given the scale boundaries, he attempts to confirm similarity with those better off and then to confirm dissimilarity with those worse off. The necessity of interacting publicly with the referent person increases choice of the most “attractive” others.

Group cohesiveness, social norms, and bystander intervention.

Previous research suggests that the larger a group of bystanders is, the less likely any one bystander is to offer a victim help in an emergency. Nearly all of this research has been conducted with unacquainted bystanders, and thus, an important group characteristic, cohesiveness, may have been held at a low level. Study 1 found support for the hypothesis that group size inhibits helping in lowcohesive groups but facilitates helping in high-cohesive groups. Study 2 found support for the hypothesis that the effects of cohesiveness on bystander intervention depend on the salience of the social-responsibility norm: Cohesiveness facilitated helping more when the social-responsibility norm was salient than when it was not. Thus* group cohesiveness is a theoretically critical variable for understanding the bystander effect. The results of these experiments suggest that the effects of group and situation variables depend on the groups meaning to the individual. Latan£ and Darley (1970) conducted a series of investigations to test the relation between group size and aid giving in an emergency situation. They found that the greater the number of bystanders, the lower the likelihood of anyone helping. Put another way, an individual was more likely to help when alone than when in the presence of others. This has come to be known as the bystander effect. In order to account for this effect, Latan6 and Darley invoked the concept of diffusion of responsibilit y. According to this

Determinants of social comparison choices

Abstract Two experiments were conducted to clarify previous, inconsistent findings regarding various hypothesized determinants of social comparison choices. A bogus personality trait scale was administered to subjects, and they were either informed of the range of scores in their group (R conditions) or not informed (NR conditions). Experiment 1 closely replicated support for a range-seeking hypothesis and for Festingers theory of social comparison processes (1954), provided only minimal support for a positive instance hypothesis, and failed to obtain support for a desirability hypothesis. Experiment 2 was run to complement Experiment 1 in providing an unequivocal test of the positive instance and desirability hypotheses. The results suggested a multifactor model to account for comparison choices, the factors being whether or not a score was (a) an uncertain element (i.e., the highest score), (b) a positive instance, and/or (c) desirable.

Effects of Social Support and Relapse Prevention Training as Adjuncts to a Televised Smoking-Cessation Intervention.

Smokers registering for a televised cessation program who also expressed interest in joining a support group and who had a nonsmoking buddy were randomly assigned to 3 conditions: no-contact control, discussion, and social support. All Ss received a self-help manual and were encouraged to watch the daily TV program. Ss in the discussion and social support conditions were scheduled to attend 3 group meetings (one with a buddy). Social support Ss and buddies received training in support and relapse prevention. A 4th analysis group was composed of Ss who failed to attend any of the scheduled meetings (no shows). There were strong group effects at the end of treatment. Abstinence rates were highest in the social support group, followed, in order, by the discussion group, no shows, and no-contact controls. The social support group improved outcome by increasing both the level of support and program material use (reading the manual and watching TV).

Effects of biochemical validation of self-reported cigarette smoking on treatment success and on misreporting abstinence.

Many investigators have reported that cigarette smokers who are trying to quit often falsely report being abstinent at the end of treatment. Unfortunately, much of the previous research designed to investigate this problem has been flawed, making the results difficult to interpret. We attempted to avoid these flaws and to investigate the measurement of alveolar carbon monoxide (CO) levels to validate self-reported smoking rates at the end of treatment. Participants in behavioral cessation clinics were randomly assigned to one of three conditions that varied in timing of exposure to information regarding CO measurement: at the beginning of treatment (demonstration of CO measurement, discussion of smoking effects on CO levels, and notification that individual CO levels would be measured at the conclusion of the clinic), at the end of treatment (demonstration, discussion, and notification of CO measurement prior to self-reports of smoking levels), or at the end of treatment (demonstration and discussion of CO measurement subsequent to self-reports of smoking levels). CO levels of all participants were measured at the end of treatment after they reported their current smoking levels. Only 16% of self-reports of abstinence were not verified by CO measurement. Smokers who observed the CO demonstration at the beginning of treatment were significantly more likely than the other two groups to achieve abstinence at the end of treatment and significantly less likely to misreport abstinence. Clinical and research implications of these results are discussed.

Work site group meetings and the effectiveness of a televised smoking cessation intervention

At the work site, smoking accounts for increased health care expenses and worker absenteeism due to smoking-related illness and reduced productivity and lost wages. Developing comprehensive and accessible smoking cessation programs at the work site is an important objective for health care professionals. In this study, employees of 43 corporations participated in a televised smoking cessation program accompanied by self-help manuals. The media component involved presenting a smoking cessation program on a network television affiliate station during the 4:30 p.m. and 10:00 p.m. news for 20 days. Employees at half the corporations also had access to semiweekly self-help group meetings. Adding self-help support groups to a program involving self-help manuals and the media reports was found to significantly increase abstinence and its maintenance over time. The implications of using the media, self-help groups, and work site locations in large-scale community-based interventions are discussed.

One year follow-up of the Chicago televised smoking cessation program

We compared the relative effectiveness of four different conditions of self-help and social support provided to people attempting to quit smoking in conjunction with a televised cessation program: Smokers ready to quit were able to request written manuals from hardware stores to accompany a televised program. At worksites we provided the written manual to all workers. At a random half of the worksites, we also provided training to discussion leaders who subsequently led discussions among smokers attempting to quit with the program. At health maintenance organization sites we invited smokers who had requested program materials to participate in similar group discussions at health centers. In this paper we report one year follow-up results for the above four groups and compare them with previously reported results of a self-help manual alone. Results for the television plus manual condition were better than those of past studies (25 percent nonsmoking prevalence and 10 percent continuous cessation one year after the program) and considerably better than the manual alone. None of the other conditions designed to supplement the manual plus television produced better long-term outcomes; we explore the reasons for this. The program did encourage and help over 50,000 Chicago smokers to attempt quitting with the American Lung Association manual, 100 times as many as would have done so without the televised program. At least 15 other similar programs implemented since 1984 multiply this effect.

Characteristics of participants in a televised smoking cessation intervention

Participants in various components of a televised self-help smoking cessation program, based on the American Lung Associations Freedom From Smoking in 20 Days, are compared with a sample of the population of smokers to whom the intervention was addressed. Over 325,000 smokers in the target population were exposed to the program at some level. Most watched televised segments. Approximately 75,000 manuals were distributed and about 55,000 were used. Comparisons between participants and the targeted smoking population indicate that the intervention attracted those in the smoking population who are expected to be the majority of smokers by the Year 2000-blacks, females, and those with incomes under

Effects of a televised smoking cessation intervention among low-income and minority smokers.

13,000 per year. Participants with these characteristics were most likely to view the televised segments. Heavy smokers, females, and those with the most education were most likely to refer to the manual at least twice a week during the intervention. Older, nonblack participants and those with incomes of

Discovery of Reliable Attitude Change Persistence Resulting From a Transmitter Tuning Set

13,000 or more per year were most likely to attend group support sessions outside the home. Overall, the patterns of association indicate that although a televised smoking cessation program can attract individuals similar to those projected to be smokers in 2000, participation in various components of the intervention will vary by demographic characteristics.