Charles Levine

A critical examination of the ego identity status paradigm

Abstract This paper presents critical arguments which challenge the assumption that the identity status paradigm, as formulated by James Marcia, appropriately conceptualizes and operationalizes Erik Eriksons theory of ego identity formulation. We discuss Marcias conceptualization of the identity stage, indicating ways in which it diverges from Eriksons theory, how a number of Eriksonian concepts are not integrated into the paradigm, and how some ostensibly “Eriksonian” terminology used by Marcia is inappropriate and constitutes an impediment to the theoretical interpretation of empirical research in Eriksonian terms. In concluding our analysis of the identity status paradigm we attempt to demonstrate the extent to which it is interpretable in Eriksonian terms and go on to suggest why an interdisciplinary approach is necessary to fully understand ego identity formation. Finally, we raise a number of questions about the nature of the identity crisis that we believe investigators must confront if research in this area is to become sensitive to the difficulties involved in making claims of cross-cultural and transhistorical validity.

A formulation of Erikson's theory of ego identity formation

Abstract This paper provides a comprehensive formulation of Erik Eriksons theory of ego identity formation as it pertains to both the identity stage and to the remainder of the life cycle. The structure of the identity stage is discussed in terms of its more universal features and in terms of features more specific to North American society. The role played by “institutionalized moratoria” in influencing the outcome of the identity crisis and subsequent development is discussed in the context of two Eriksonian notions ignored in the literature: the value orientation stages and the struggle between the ego and superego for dominance of the personality. As part of the discussion, several constructive criticisms of Eriksons work are offered with the intent of making the theoretical formulation presented in this paper an appropriate basis for subsequent empirical investigations of his theory. One of the important implications of this paper is that it suggests that questions should be raised regarding the validity of the dominant research strategy currently in use.

Attitude versus Aptitude Is Intelligence or Motivation More Important for Positive Higher-Educational Outcomes?

This longitudinal study explores the relationships among a set of student input and environmental throughput variables in predicting output human capital skills acquisition and academic achievement at a large Canadian university. The framework for exploring these relationships is referred to as the integrated paradigm of student development. To our surprise, it was found that the input intelligence quotient was negatively related to output human capital skills and to various measures of adjustment to this university setting. In contrast, a measure of input motivation for personal and intellectual development best predicted output skills acquisition and academic achievement, independent of intelligence quotient. Although these counterintuitive findings may be sample- and university-specific, the instrument package representing the integrated paradigm of student development appears to provide a useful diagnostic battery for evaluating how well different types of students make the transition to different types of university settings.

Marcia and erikson: The relationships among ego identity status, neuroticism, dogmatism, and purpose in life.

Implicit in James Marcias writings and in the many studies that have employed his measure of ego identity is the assumption that his four ego identity statuses are developmentally ordered along a continuum from “being identity diffused” to “achieving” an ego identity. In order to assess the validity of this assumption, hypotheses were generated and tested concerning the relationship between the above ordering and Eriksons writings regarding the role played in the process of identity formation by the following three variables: neuroticism, dogmatism, and a sense of purpose in life. If one assumes that Eriksons perspective is valid, then the results of this study fail to support Marcias continuum assumption. While some of the identity statuses appear to classify persons in a manner consistent with Eriksons writings, not one instance of the postulated ordering of Marcias four statuses is observed. It is concluded that Marcias measure is not an adequate operationalization of Eriksons perspective on identity formation.

Stage Acquisition and Stage Use

This paper evaluates two developmental perspectives on moral reasoning. While their interpretations differ, both perspectives use stage displacement models to depict moral development. These perspectives assume that as ontogenesis proceeds, the role played by earlier acquired moral stages becomes increasingly insignificant in comparison with the role played by more advanced stages. The discussion argues that the use of displacement models inhibits an adequate integration and understanding of the research findings on moral development. A nondisplacement perspective is outlined to correct for this deficiency.

The relationship between ego identity status and Erikson's notions of institutionalized moratoria, value orientation stage, and ego dominance.

A number of concepts central to Eriksons theory of ego identity formation (J. E. Côté and C. Levine [1987], “A Formulation of Eriksons Theory of Ego Identity Formation,” Development Review, 7(4): 273–325) are discussed in relation to Marcias identity status paradigm in light of the fact that both assign a significant role to the notion of identity crisis. The results of an empirical investigation reveal that Eriksons notions of institutionalized moratoria, value orientation stages, and the ego-superego struggle for dominance of the personality are related to the identity status categories in a way that can be partially explained in terms of the degree to which an individual has experienced the identity crisis. Further explanations for the pattern of findings are offered in terms of Eriksons theory. These explanations clarify, to a degree, the nature of the identity statuses from a social psychological perspective.

The Current Formulation of Kohlberg’s Theory and a Response to Critics

This article is a synopsis of the monograph Moral Stages : A Current Formulation and a Response to Critics . Recent changes in the theory of moral stages are presen

On critiquing the identity status paradigm: A rejoinder to Waterman

Abstract This discussion represents our reply to questions raised by Alan Waterman (1988) concerning our critique of the ego identity status paradigm ( Cote and Levine, 1988a ). We respond to Watermans concerns regarding (a) our critique of the continuum concept, (b) our dissatisfaction with the literatures failure to unambiguously delineate the relationship between Eriksons theory and the paradigm, (c) the nature of commitment change and the resolution of the identity stage, and (d) the developmental implications of the paradigm and the nature of the construct validational evidence for the statuses. Finally, we reemphasize the importance of using a social psychological perspective when attempting to understand the process of ego identity formation.

Identity Formation, Youth, and Development : A Simplified Approach

Part I: Philosophical and Conceptual Roots of the Identity Question 1. From Ageless Questions to Current Theories 2. Culture and History: How Current Experiences Differ From the Past 3. A Social Psychology of Identities and Their Formation Part II: Late-Modernity: Contextual Adaptations to Individualization Processes 4. Moral Reasoning: A Relational Basis of Individualized Identities 5. Proactivity: Agency in Identity Formation 6. Identity Capital: Strategic Adaptions to Late-Modern Societies Part III: The Transition to Adulthood: Developmental Contextualism Applied to Late-Modernity 7. Current Scientific Approaches to Self Development and Identity Formation 8. Contexts of Identity Formation in Late-Modern Societies 9. Identity Formation and the Potentials of Human Development

Ego and Moral Development in University Contexts The Value Consistency Thesis Extended

The Value Consistency Thesis (VCT) proposed and empirically tested by Levine, Jakubowski, and Côté predicts associations between ego and moral functioning by identifying humanistic value orientations common to dimensions of both domains. With hypotheses based on Erikson’s notion of institutionalized moratorium, the present 2-year longitudinal study of 58 undergraduate students investigates the VCT as a function of participation within humanistic and technological university faculties. The findings replicate the initial test of the VCT and indicate that both ego and moral development and the ability to coordinate these developmental domains are gains more likely for students enrolled in humanistic faculties.